Editing Zulu language (section)

==Phonology==

===Vowels===
[[File:Zulu vowel chart.svg|right|upright=1.13|thumb|Zulu vowel chart, from {{Harvcoltxt|Wade|1996}}]]
The vowel system of Zulu consists of five vowels.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- style="text-align:center;"
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}}
|
| {{IPA link|u}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɔ}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPA link|ä|a}}
|
|}

{{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/}} are pronounced [{{IPA link|e}}] and [{{IPA link|o}}], respectively, if the following syllable contains the [+[[Advanced and retracted tongue root|ATR]]] vowels {{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/u/}}.<ref>{{Cite web|title=PHOIBLE 2.0 -|url=https://phoible.org/inventories/view/147#tipa|access-date=2020-10-10|website=phoible.org}}</ref> They are {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} otherwise:
* ''umgibeli'' "passenger", phonetically {{IPA|[úm̩̀ɡìɓé(ː)lì]}}
* ''ukupheka'' "to cook", phonetically {{IPA|[ùɠúpʰɛ̀(ː)ɠà]}}

There is limited [[vowel length]] in Zulu, as a result of the contraction of certain syllables. For example, the word ''ithambo'' {{IPA|/íːtʰámbó/}} "bone", is a contraction of an earlier ''ilithambo'' {{IPA|/ílítʰámbó/}}, which may still be used by some speakers. Likewise, ''uphahla'' {{IPA|/úːpʰaɬa/}} "roof" is a contraction of the earlier ''uluphahla'' {{IPA|/ulúpʰaɬa/}}. In addition, the vowel of the penultimate syllable is allophonically lengthened phrase- or sentence-finally.

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Zulu phonemes
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! {{small|[[Central consonant|central]]}}
! {{small|[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]}}
|-
! rowspan="5" | [[Click consonant|Click]]
! {{small|plain}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ᵏǀʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᵏǁʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᵏǃʼ}}
|
|
|-
! {{small|aspirated}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ᵏǀʰ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᵏǁʰ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᵏǃʰ}}
|
|
|-
! {{small|nasalised}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ᵑǀ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᵑǁ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᵑǃ}}
|
|
|-
! {{small|slack-voiced oral}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ᶢǀʱ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᶢǁʱ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᶢǃʱ}}
|
|
|-
! {{small|slack-voiced nasal}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ᵑǀʱ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᵑǁʱ}}
| {{IPAlink|ᵑǃʱ}}
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
! {{small|modally voiced}}
| {{IPAlink|m}}
| {{IPAlink|n}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ɲ}}
|
|
|-
! {{small|slack-voiced}}
| {{IPAlink|m̤}}
| {{IPAlink|n̤}}
|
|
| ({{IPAlink|ŋ̈}})
|
|-
! rowspan="4" | [[Plosive]]
! {{small|plain}}
| {{IPAlink|pʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|tʼ}}
|
|
| {{IPAlink|kʼ}}
|
|-
! {{small|aspirated}}
| {{IPAlink|pʰ}}
| {{IPAlink|tʰ}}
|
|
| {{IPAlink|kʰ}}
|
|-
! {{small|slack-voiced}}
| {{IPAlink|b̤}}
| {{IPAlink|d̤}}
|
|
| {{IPAlink|ɡ̈}}
|
|-
! {{small|implosive}}
| {{IPAlink|ɓ}}
|
|
|
| {{IPAlink|ɠ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate]]
! {{small|plain}}
|
| {{IPAlink|tsʼ}}
|
| {{IPAlink|tʃʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|kxʼ}}~{{IPAlink|k𝼄ʼ}}
|
|-
! {{small|slack-voiced}}
|
|
|
| {{IPAlink|dʒ̈}}
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
! {{small|voiceless}}
| {{IPAlink|f}}
| {{IPAlink|s}}
| {{IPAlink|ɬ}}
| {{IPAlink|ʃ}}
|
| {{IPAlink|h}}
|-
! {{small|slack-voiced}}
| {{IPAlink|v̤}}
| {{IPAlink|z̤}}
| {{IPAlink|ɮ̈}}
|
|
| {{IPAlink|ɦ̥}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|
| {{IPAlink|r}}
| {{IPAlink|l}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Semivowel]]
! {{small|modally voiced}}
|
|
|
| {{IPAlink|j}}
| {{IPAlink|w}}
|
|-
! {{small|slack-voiced}}
|
|
|
| {{IPAlink|j̈}}
| {{IPAlink|w̤}}
|
|}

# The plain voiceless plosives, affricates and clicks are realised phonetically as ejectives {{IPAblink|pʼ}}, {{IPAblink|tʼ}}, {{IPAblink|kʼ}}, {{IPAblink|tsʼ}}, {{IPAblink|tʃʼ}} {{IPAblink|kxʼ}}.
# When not preceded by a nasal, {{IPA|/ɠ/}} is almost in complementary distribution with {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/kʰ/}}. The latter two phonemes occur almost exclusively root-initially, while {{IPA|/ɠ/}} appears exclusively medially. Recent loanwords contain {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/kʰ/}} in other positions, e.g. ''isekhondi'' {{IPA|/iːsekʰoːndi/}} "second", ''ibhayisikili'' {{IPA|/iːbajisikiːli/}} "bicycle".
# The [[slack voice|slack-voiced]] consonants are [[depressor consonant]]s. These have a lowering effect on the tone of their syllable. 
# The consonant {{IPA|/ŋ/}} occurs in some dialects as a reduction of the cluster {{IPA|/nɡ/}} when it is not in stem-initial position, and is therefore always slack-voiced.
# The trill {{IPA|/r/}} is not native to Zulu and occurs only in expressive words and in recent borrowings from European languages.

The use of [[click consonant]]s is one of the most distinctive features of Zulu. This feature is shared with several other languages of Southern Africa, but it is very rare in other regions. There are three basic articulations of clicks in Zulu:
* [[Dental click|Denti-alveolar]] {{IPA|/ǀ/}}, comparable to a sucking of teeth, as the sound one makes for 'tsk tsk'.
* [[Postalveolar click|Postalveolar]] {{IPA|/!/}}, comparable to a bottle top 'pop'.
* [[Alveolar lateral click|Lateral]] {{IPA|/ǁ/}}, comparable to a click that one may do for a walking horse.

Each articulation covers five click consonants, with differences such as being slack-voiced, [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] or [[nasalisation|nasalised]], for a total of 15.

===Phonotactics===

Zulu syllables are canonically (N)C(w)V{{Clarify|reason=context gives examples where initial syllable consists of only V, cf. umpetshisi and impoko|date=August 2020}}, and words must always end in a vowel. Consonant clusters consist of any consonant, optionally preceded by a [[homorganic]] nasal consonant (so-called "prenasalisation", described in more detail below) and optionally followed by the consonant {{IPA|/w/}}.

In addition, syllabic {{IPA|/m̩/}} occurs as a reduction of former {{IPA|/mu/}}, and acts like a true syllable: it can be syllabic even when not word-initial, and can also carry distinctive tones like a full syllable. It does not necessarily have to be homorganic with the following consonant, although the difference between homorganic nonsyllabic {{IPA|/mC/}} and syllabic {{IPA|/m̩C/}} is distinctive, e.g. ''umpetshisi'' {{IPA|/um̩pétʃiːsi/}} "peach tree" (5 syllables) versus ''impoko'' {{IPA|/ímpoːɠo/}} "grass flower" (3 syllables). Moreover, sequences of syllabic ''m'' and homorganic ''m'' can occur, e.g. ''ummbila'' {{IPA|/úm̩mbíːla/}} "maize" (4 syllables).

Recent loanwords from languages such as English may violate these constraints, by including additional consonant clusters that are not native to Zulu, such as in ''igremu'' {{IPA|/iːgreːmu/}} "[[gram]]". There may be some variation between speakers as to whether clusters are broken up by an [[epenthetic vowel]] or not, e.g. ''ikhompiyutha'' {{IPA|/iːkʰompijuːtʰa/}} or ''ikhompyutha'' {{IPA|/iːkʰompjuːtʰa/}} "computer".

===Prosody===

====Stress====

Stress in Zulu words is mostly predictable and normally falls on the penultimate syllable of a word. It is accompanied by an allophonic lengthening of the vowel. When the final vowel of a word is long due to contraction, it receives the stress instead of the preceding syllable.

Lengthening does not occur on all words in a sentence, however, but only those that are sentence- or phrase-final. Thus, for any word of at least two syllables, there are two different forms, one with penultimate length and one without it, occurring in complementary distribution. In some cases, there are morphemic alternations that occur as a result of word position as well. The remote demonstrative pronouns may appear with the suffix ''-ana'' when sentence-final, but only as ''-ā'' otherwise. Likewise, the recent past tense of verbs ends in ''-ile'' sentence-finally, but is reduced to ''-ē'' medially. Moreover, a falling tone can only occur on a long vowel, so the shortening has effects on tone as well.

Some words, such as ideophones or interjections, can have stress that deviates from the regular pattern.

====Tone====

Like almost all other [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] and other [[African languages]], Zulu is [[tonal Languages|tonal]]. There are three main ''tonemes'': low, high and falling. Zulu is conventionally written without any indication of tone, but tone can be distinctive in Zulu. For example, the words "priest" and "teacher" are both spelt ''umfundisi'', but they are pronounced with different tones: {{IPA|/úm̩fúndisi/}} for the "priest" meaning, and {{IPA|/úm̩fundísi/}} for the "teacher" meaning.

In principle, every syllable can be pronounced with either a high or a low tone. However, low tone does not behave the same as the other two, as high tones can "spread" into low-toned syllables while the reverse does not occur. A low tone is therefore better described as the ''absence'' of any toneme; it is a kind of default tone that is overridden by high or falling tones. The falling tone is a sequence of high-low and occurs only on long vowels. The penultimate syllable can also bear a falling tone when it is long due to the word's position in the phrase. However, when it shortens, the falling tone becomes disallowed in that position.{{clarify|reason=What happens to it?|date=December 2016}}

In principle, every [[morpheme]] has an inherent underlying tone pattern which does not change regardless of where it appears in a word. However, like most other Bantu languages, Zulu has [[word tone]], meaning that the pattern of tones acts more like a template to assign tones to individual syllables, rather than a direct representation of the pronounced tones themselves. Consequently, the relationship between underlying tone patterns and the tones that are pronounced can be quite complex. Underlying high tones tend to surface rightward from the syllables where they are underlyingly present, especially in longer words.

====Depressor consonants====

The breathy consonant phonemes in Zulu are [[depressor consonant]]s or depressors for short. Depressor consonants have a lowering effect on pitch, adding a non-phonemic low-tone onset to the normal tone of the syllable. Thus, in syllables with depressor consonants, high tones are realised as rising, and falling tones as rising-then-falling. In both cases, the pitch does not reach as high as in non-depressed syllables. The possible tones on a syllable with a voiceless consonant like ''hla'' are {{IPA|[ɬá ɬâ ɬà]}}, and the possible tones of a breathy consonant syllable, like ''dla'', are {{IPA|[ɮǎ̤ ɮa̤᷈ ɮà̤]}}. A depressor does not affect a syllable that's already low, but it blocks assimilation to a preceding high tone so that the tone of the depressor syllable and any following low-tone syllables stays low.

===Phonological processes===

====Prenasalisation====

Prenasalisation occurs whenever a consonant is preceded by a homorganic nasal, either lexically or as a consequence of prefixation. The most notable case of the latter is the class 9 noun prefix ''in-'', which ends in a homorganic nasal. Prenasalisation triggers several changes in the following consonant, some of which are phonemic and others allophonic. The changes can be summed as follows:<ref>Rycroft & Ngcobo (1979) ''Say it in Zulu'', p. 6</ref><ref>''Zulu-English dictionary'', C.M. Doke & B.W. Vilakazi</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Normal
! Prenasalised
! Rule
|-
| {{IPA|/pʰ/}}, {{IPA|/tʰ/}}, {{IPA|/kʰ/}}
| {{IPA|/mp/}}, {{IPA|/nt/}}, {{IPA|/ŋk/}}
| Aspiration is lost on obstruents.
|-
| {{IPA|/ǀʰ/}}, {{IPA|/ǁʰ/}}, {{IPA|/ǃʰ/}}
| {{IPA|/ᵑǀ/}}, {{IPA|/ᵑǁ/}}, {{IPA|/ᵑǃ/}}
| Aspiration is replaced by nasalisation of clicks.
|-
| {{IPA|/ǀ/}}, {{IPA|/ǁ/}}, {{IPA|/ǃ/}}
| {{IPA|/ᵑǀʱ/}}, {{IPA|/ᵑǁʱ/}}, {{IPA|/ᵑǃʱ/}}
| Plain clicks become breathy nasal.
|-
| {{IPA|/ɓ/}}
| {{IPA|/mb/}}
| Implosive becomes breathy.
|-
| {{IPA|/f/}}, {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ɬ/}}<br />{{IPA|/v/}}, {{IPA|/z/}}, {{IPA|/ɮ/}}
| {{IPA|[ɱp̪fʼ]}}, {{IPA|[ntsʼ]}}, {{IPA|/ntʃ/}}, {{IPA|[ntɬʼ]}}<br />{{IPA|[ɱb̪vʱ]}}, {{IPA|[ndzʱ]}}, {{IPA|[ndɮʱ]}}
| Fricatives become affricates. Only phonemic, and thus reflected orthographically, for {{IPA|/ntʃ/}}.
|-
| {{IPA|/h/}}, {{IPA|/ɦ/}}, {{IPA|/w/}}, {{IPA|/wʱ/}}
| {{IPA|[ŋx]}}, {{IPA|[ŋɡʱ]}}, {{IPA|[ŋɡw]}}, {{IPA|[ŋɡwʱ]}}
| Approximants are [[Fortition|fortified]]. This change is allophonic, and not reflected in the orthography.
|-
| {{IPA|/j/}}
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}}
| Palatal approximant becomes palatal nasal.
|-
| {{IPA|/l/}}
| {{IPA|/l/}} or rarely {{IPA|/nd/}}
| The outcome {{IPA|/nd/}} is a fossilised outcome from the time when {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/l/}} were still one phoneme. See [[Proto-Bantu language]].
|-
| {{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/ɲ/}}
| {{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/ɲ/}}
| No change when the following consonant is itself a nasal.
|}

====Tone assimilation====

Zulu has tonic [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]]: high tones tend to spread allophonically to following low-tone syllables, raising their pitch to a level just below that of adjacent high-tone syllables. A toneless syllable between a high-tone syllable and another tonic syllable assimilates to that high tone. That is, if the preceding syllable ends on a high tone and the following syllable begins with a high tone (because it is high or falling), the intermediate toneless syllable has its pitch raised as well. When the preceding syllable is high but the following is toneless, the medial toneless syllable adopts a high-tone onset from the preceding syllable, resulting in a falling tone contour.

For example, the English word ''spoon'' was borrowed into Zulu as {{lang|zu|isipunu}}, phonemically {{IPA|/ísipúnu/}}. The second syllable {{lang|zu|si}} assimilates to the surrounding high tones, raising its pitch, so that it is pronounced {{IPA|[ísípʼúːnù]}} sentence-finally. If tone pitch is indicated with numbers, with 1 highest and 9 lowest pitch, then the pitches of each syllable can be denoted as 2-4-3-9.<ref>''Zulu-English Dictionary'', Doke, 1958</ref> The second syllable is thus still lower in pitch than both of the adjacent syllables.

====Tone displacement====

Depressor consonants have an effect called ''tone displacement''. Tone displacement occurs whenever a depressor occurs with a high tone, and causes the tone on the syllable to shift rightward onto the next syllable. If the next syllable is long, it gets a falling tone, otherwise a regular high tone. If the penultimate syllable becomes high (not falling), the final syllable [[dissimilation|dissimilates]] and becomes low if it was not already. Tone displacement is blocked under the following conditions:
* When the syllable has a long vowel.
* When the following syllable also has a depressor consonant.
* When the following syllable is the final syllable and is short.

Whenever tone displacement is blocked, this results in a depressor syllable with a high tone, which will have the low-tone onset as described above. When the following syllable already has a high or falling tone, the tone disappears from the syllable as if it had been shifted away, but the following syllable's tone is not modified.

Some examples:
* {{lang|zu|izipunu}} "spoons", the plural of {{lang|zu|isipunu}} from the previous section, is phonemically {{IPA|/ízipúnu/}}. Because {{IPA|/z/}} is a depressor consonant, tone assimilation is prevented. Consequently, the word is pronounced as {{IPA|[ízìpʼúːnù]}} sentence-finally, with a low tone in the second syllable.
* {{lang|zu|izintombi}} "girls" is phonemically {{IPA|/izíntombí/}}. {{IPA|/z/}} is a depressor, and is not blocked, so the tone shifts to the third syllable. This syllable can be either long or short depending on sentence position. When long, the pronunciation is {{IPA|[ìzìntômbí]}}, with a falling tone. However, when the third syllable is short, the tone is high, and dissimilation of the final syllable occurs, resulting in {{IPA|[ìzìntómbì]}}.
* {{lang|zu|nendoda}} "with a man" is phonemically {{IPA|/nʱéndoda/}}. {{IPA|/nʱ/}} is a depressor, but so is {{IPA|/d/}}, so tone displacement is blocked. Consequently, the pronunciation is {{IPA|[nʱěndɔ̀ːdà]}}, with rising pitch in the first syllable due to the low-onset effect.

====Palatalization====

[[Palatalization (sound change)|Palatalization]] is a change that affects labial and alveolar consonants whenever they are immediately followed by {{IPA|/j/}}. While palatalization occurred historically, it is still productive and occurs as a result of the addition of suffixes beginning with {{IPA|/j/}}. A frequent example is the diminutive suffix {{lang|zu|-yana}}.

Moreover, Zulu does not generally tolerate sequences of a labial consonant plus {{IPA|/w/}}. Whenever {{IPA|/w/}} follows a labial consonant, it changes to {{IPA|/j/}}, which then triggers palatalization of the consonant. This effect can be seen in the locative forms of nouns ending in {{lang|zu|-o}} or {{lang|zu|-u}}, which change to {{lang|zu|-weni}} and {{lang|zu|-wini}} respectively in the locative. If a labial consonant immediately precedes, palatalization is triggered. The change also occurs in nouns beginning in {{lang|zu|ubu-}} with a stem beginning with a vowel.

The following changes occur as a result of palatalization:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! Original<br />consonant
! Palatalized<br />consonant
! Examples
|-
| {{IPA|pʰ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|ʃ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* {{lang|zu|impuphu}} → {{lang|zu|impushana}} (diminutive)
* {{lang|zu|izipho}} → {{lang|zu|ezisheni}} (locative)
|-
| {{IPA|tʰ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* {{lang|zu|umuthi}} → {{lang|zu|umshana}} (diminutive; also {{lang|zu|umthana}})
|-
| {{IPA|p}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|tʃʼ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* {{lang|zu|umtapo}} → {{lang|zu|emtatsheni}} (locative)
|-
| {{IPA|t}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* {{lang|zu|ikati}} → {{lang|zu|ikatshana}} (diminutive)
|-
| {{IPA|bʱ	}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* {{lang|zu|intaba}} → {{lang|zu|intatshana}} (diminutive)
* {{lang|zu|ingubo}} → {{lang|zu|engutsheni}} (locative)
* {{lang|zu|ubu-}} + {{lang|zu|-ani}} → {{lang|zu|utshani}} ({{lang|zu|ubu-}} + vowel)
|-
| {{IPA|b}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|dʒ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* {{lang|zu|isigubhu}} → {{lang|zu|isigujana}} (diminutive)
|-
| {{IPA|d}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* {{lang|zu|incwadi}} → {{lang|zu|incwajana}} (diminutive; also {{lang|zu|incwadana}})
|-
| {{IPA|m}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|ɲ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* {{lang|zu|inkomo}} → {{lang|zu|inkonyana}} (diminutive)
* {{lang|zu|umlomo}} → {{lang|zu|emlonyeni}} (locative)
|-
| {{IPA|n}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* {{lang|zu|inyoni}} → {{lang|zu|inyonyana}} (diminutive)
|-
| {{IPA|mp}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|ntʃʼ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* {{lang|zu|inswempe}} → {{lang|zu|inswentshana}} (diminutive)
|-
| {{IPA|nt}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* {{lang|zu|umkhonto}} → {{lang|zu|umkhontshwana}} (diminutive)
|-
| {{IPA|mb}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|ndʒ}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* {{lang|zu|ithambo}} → {{lang|zu|ethanjeni}} (locative)
|-
| {{IPA|nd}}
| style="text-align: left;" |
* {{lang|zu|isondo}} → {{lang|zu|isonjwana}} (diminutive; also {{lang|zu|isondwana}})
|}