Editing Wisdom (section)

===Western philosophy===
{{main|Western philosophy}}

====Ancient Greek philosophy====
{{main|Ancient Greek philosophy}}

Wisdom (''[[Sophia (wisdom)|sophia]]'', σοφία) played a central role in [[Ancient Greek philosophy]] and was often distinguished from mere knowledge (''[[episteme]]'', ἐπιστήμη).

=====Socrates=====
According to [[Plato]] and [[Xenophon]], the Pythia of the Delphic Oracle answered the question "who is the wisest man in Greece?" by stating Socrates was the wisest.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Plato]]|title=[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]}}; {{cite book|author=[[Xenophon]]|title=[[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|Memorabilia]]}}.</ref> According to Plato's [[Apology (Plato)|''Apology'']], [[Socrates]] (469–399 BCE) decided to investigate the people who might be considered wiser than him, concluding they lacked true knowledge. He argued that true wisdom involves questioning and refining beliefs rather than assuming certainty:

{{Verse translation|lang=grc|τούτου μὲν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ἐγὼ σοφώτερός εἰμι: κινδυνεύει μὲν γὰρ ἡμῶν οὐδέτερος οὐδὲν καλὸν κἀγαθὸν εἰδέναι, ἀλλ᾽ οὗτος μὲν οἴεταί τι εἰδέναι οὐκ εἰδώς, ἐγὼ δέ, ὥσπερ οὖν οὐκ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι: ἔοικα γοῦν τούτου γε σμικρῷ τινι αὐτῷ τούτῳ σοφώτερος εἶναι, ὅτι ἃ μὴ οἶδα οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι.|I am wiser than this man; for neither of us really knows anything fine and good, but this man thinks he knows something when he does not, whereas I, as I do not know anything, do not think I do either.}}

This became immortalized in the phrase "[[I know that I know nothing]]", an aphorism suggesting that it is wise to recognize one's own [[ignorance]]<ref>{{cite journal|first=Gail|last=Fine|title=Does Socrates Claim to Know that He Knows Nothing?|journal=Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy|volume=35|year=2008|pages=49–88|doi=10.1093/oso/9780199557790.003.0003 |isbn=978-0-19-955779-0 }}</ref> and to value [[Epistemic humility#Socratic humility theory of wisdom|epistemic humility]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Ryan|first=Sharon|title=Wisdom|year=2013|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/wisdom/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Fall 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=17 August 2019}}</ref>

=====Plato and Aristotle=====
To Socrates and his student [[Plato]] (c. 427–347 BCE), [[philosophy]] was literally the love of wisdom ({{transliteration|grc|[[-phil-|philo]]-[[sophia (wisdom)|sophia]]}}). This permeates Plato's [[dialogue]]s; in ''[[The Republic (Plato)|The Republic]]'' the leaders of his proposed [[utopia]] are [[philosopher king]]s who, through education and contemplation, attain a deep [[understanding]] of [[justice]] and the [[Theory of Forms|Forms]], and possess the courage to act accordingly.<ref name="Trowbridge-2011">{{cite journal |last=Trowbridge |first=R. H. |date=May 2011
|title=Waiting for Sophia: 30 years of Conceptualizing Wisdom in Empirical Psychology |journal=Research in Human Development |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=111–117 |doi=10.1080/15427609.2011.568872 |s2cid=145371442}}</ref>

[[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE), in ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'', defined wisdom as understanding why things are a certain way ([[causality]]), which is deeper than merely knowing things are a certain way. was the first to differentiate between two types of wisdom:

*Theoretical wisdom ({{transliteration|grc|sophia}}), which involves deep contemplation of universal truths.
*Practical wisdom ({{transliteration|grc|[[phronesis]]}}), which is the ability to make sound decisions in everyday life.

Aristotle saw ''phronesis'' as essential for ethical living, arguing that virtuous actions require both knowledge and experience. This concept of practical wisdom later influenced [[virtue ethics]] and modern discussions of decision-making.<ref name="Trowbridge-2011" />

====Medieval and Renaissance thought====
In the [[Middle Ages|Medieval period]], wisdom was often linked to [[divine revelation]] and theology. [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354–430 CE) viewed wisdom as knowledge aligned with God's eternal truth, distinguishing it from mere worldly intelligence.<ref>{{cite book |last=Augustine |first=Saint |title=The City of God |orig-year=426 |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Classics |location=London}}</ref> He argued that true wisdom (''sapientia'') comes from knowing and loving God, contrasting it with human knowledge (''scientia''), which concerns temporal matters.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Daly |first=Gerard |title=Augustine's City of God: A Reader's Guide |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

[[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225–1274) built upon [[Aristotle]]'s distinction between theoretical and practical wisdom, incorporating it into [[Christian theology]]. He argued that wisdom (''sapientia'') is the highest intellectual virtue, guiding [[reason]] toward ultimate truth and divine understanding.<ref>{{cite book |last=Aquinas |first=Thomas |title=Summa Theologica |orig-year=1265–1274 |year=1981 |publisher=Christian Classics}}</ref> Aquinas distinguished between natural wisdom, which humans acquire through reason, and supernatural wisdom, which comes through divine revelation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kretzmann |first=Norman |title=The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas |year=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

During the [[Renaissance]], humanist thinkers such as [[Erasmus]] (1466–1536) and [[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne]] (1533–1592) emphasized the role of self-reflection and skepticism in wisdom, challenging dogmatic reliance on authority.<ref>{{cite book |last=Erasmus |first=Desiderius |title=The Praise of Folly |orig-year=1511 |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin Classics}}</ref> Montaigne, in his ''[[Essays (Montaigne)|Essays]]'', proposed that true wisdom lies in acknowledging uncertainty and maintaining intellectual humility.<ref>{{cite book |last=Montaigne |first=Michel de |title=The Complete Essays |orig-year=1580 |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=978-0140446043}}</ref> The Renaissance emphasis on human reason and critical inquiry laid the groundwork for early modern philosophical discussions of wisdom.

====Modern and contemporary philosophy====
In the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the concept of wisdom shifted from religious and metaphysical frameworks to one rooted in rationality and moral duty. [[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804) argued that wisdom involves the application of practical reason to align one’s actions with universal moral principles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Critique of Practical Reason |orig-year=1788 |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> He distinguished between theoretical reason, which seeks knowledge for its own sake, and practical reason, which applies knowledge ethically. Kantian wisdom involves making decisions that conform to the categorical imperative, a moral law derived from reason.

During the 19th century, romanticism and existentialism challenged the rationalist foundations of wisdom. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] (1844–1900) criticized traditional views of wisdom as passive contemplation and obedience to moral codes. Instead, he championed "life-affirming wisdom", emphasizing personal growth through struggle and self-overcoming.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nietzsche |first=Friedrich |title=Thus Spoke Zarathustra |orig-year=1883 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Nietzsche rejected the pursuit of static truths, instead advocating for a dynamic and self-created form of wisdom.

Existentialist philosophers further expanded this critique. [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] (1905–1980) viewed wisdom as a confrontation with the absurd condition of life and the freedom to create meaning in a world devoid of inherent purpose.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sartre |first=Jean-Paul |title=Being and Nothingness |orig-year=1943 |year=1993 |publisher=Washington Square Press}}</ref> [[Albert Camus]] (1913–1960) echoed these ideas in ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'', arguing that wisdom lies in accepting life's absurdity and choosing to live meaningfully despite its challenges.<ref>{{cite book |last=Camus |first=Albert |title=The Myth of Sisyphus |orig-year=1942 |year=1991 |publisher=Vintage International}}</ref>

In the 20th century, pragmatist philosophers like [[John Dewey]] (1859–1952) argued for a form of wisdom based on adaptability and practical decision-making. Dewey rejected fixed moral absolutes in favor of wisdom as a constantly evolving process of inquiry and experimentation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dewey |first=John |title=Democracy and Education |orig-year=1916 |year=2018 |publisher=Free Press}}</ref> Pragmatic wisdom, according to Dewey, emerges from ongoing reflection on experience and the ability to adapt principles to changing contexts.

Meanwhile, [[Virtue ethics|virtue ethicists]] such as [[Martha Nussbaum]] argue that wisdom is tied to [[emotional intelligence]] and [[empathy]]. In her works on [[Aristotelian ethics]], Nussbaum writes that wise individuals understand the complexities of human emotions and integrate them into moral reasoning.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nussbaum |first=Martha |title=The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy |orig-year=1986 |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> This perspective sees wisdom not merely as intellectual discernment but as the capacity to recognize the emotional and contextual dimensions of moral life.

[[Postmodernism|Postmodern]] philosophers challenge the notion of wisdom as a universal concept. [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) argued that ideas of wisdom are shaped by power structures and are inherently subjective, often serving to reinforce dominant ideologies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foucault |first=Michel |title=The Archaeology of Knowledge |orig-year=1969 |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> Postmodern perspectives emphasize cultural relativism and the diversity of wisdom across historical and social contexts rather than a singular definition.

Today, contemporary discussions of wisdom draw from cognitive science and social philosophy. Philosophers like [[Philip Kitcher]] focus on practical wisdom as collaborative decision-making in democratic societies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kitcher |first=Philip |title=The Ethical Project |year=2011 |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> This view holds that wisdom is not an individual trait but a collective process involving diverse perspectives. As such, modern philosophy views wisdom as dynamic, context-dependent, and shaped by emotional, social, and cognitive factors.