Editing Titchwell Marsh (section)

==Fauna and flora==
===Birds===
[[File:Acrocephalus schoenobaenus 1948.jpg|thumb|[[Sedge warbler]]s breed in the marsh.]]
The key breeding species are reed bed specialists such as the marsh harrier, Eurasian bittern and bearded reedling, together with the avocet, the RSPB's symbolic bird.<ref name = rspbspecies>{{cite web| title= Star species| work = Titchwell Marsh| url= http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/star_species.aspx
| publisher= RSPB}} Retrieved 8 November 2011.</ref> Bitterns stopped breeding on the reserve in 1989 due to inadequate habitat and a lack of sufficient large food fish;<ref name= gurney/> although [[European eel]]s, a favoured food, are present, the numbers are too low.<ref name= Self>{{cite journal | last= Self | first= M | year= 2005| title= A review of management for fish and bitterns, ''Botaurus stellaris'', in wetland reserves | journal= Fisheries Management and Ecology | volume= 12 | issue = 6 | pages= 387–394 | doi =  10.1111/j.1365-2400.2005.00462.x| doi-access= free | bibcode= 2005FisME..12..387S }}</ref> These problems were addressed by managing water levels and excavating some of the reed bed to create open, reed-fringed pools, and stocking the lagoon with the common rudd; breeding recommenced in 2004.<ref name= gurney>{{cite journal | last= Gurney | first= Mark | year=2007 | title= Introduction of rudd ''Scardinius erythropthalmus'' as food for bitterns ''Botaurus stellaris'' at Titchwell Marsh RSPB reserve, Norfolk, England | journal = Conservation Evidence | volume= 4 | pages= 4–5 }}</ref> In 2011, there were 80 avocet nests, two pairs of Eurasian bitterns, and four pairs of marsh harriers, the latter successfully [[fledge|fledging]] seven young.<ref>{{cite web|author=Eele, Paul |title=Titchwell Marsh |url=http://www.rspb-westnorfolk.org/titchwell.html |publisher=RSPB West Norfolk Local Group |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425150952/http://www.rspb-westnorfolk.org/titchwell.html |archive-date=2012-04-25 }} Retrieved 8 November 2011.</ref>

Other breeding birds include [[common ringed plover|ringed plovers]] and [[Eurasian oystercatcher]]s in the sand dunes, and [[water rail]]s in the reed bed. [[Sedge warbler|Sedge]], [[Eurasian reed warbler|reed]] and [[Cetti's warbler]]s all nest in the wetland, and [[little egret]]s are now common on the reserve. In early summer, scarcer [[bird migration|migrants]] like the [[little gull]], [[black tern]], [[Eurasian spoonbill]]s and [[garganey]] may pass through on their way to breed elsewhere.<ref name = harrup>Harrup (2010) pp. 246–248.</ref>

In the autumn, species arrive from the north, some, such as [[black-tailed godwit]]s, [[curlew sandpiper]]s and [[little stint]]s just passing through, pausing for a few days to refuel, others staying for the winter.<ref name = rspbseas>{{cite web| title= Seasonal highlights | work=Titchwell Marsh | url= http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/seasonal_highlights.aspx| publisher= RSPB}} Retrieved 11 December 2011.</ref><ref name= Newton114 >Newton (2010) pp. 114–115.</ref> This is also a good time to see bearded reedlings.<ref name= Taylor/> Offshore, [[Great skua|great]] and [[Arctic skua]]s, [[northern gannet]]s and [[black-legged kittiwake]]s may pass close by in favourable winds.<ref name =harrup/>
[[File:Limosalimosaislandica 1979.jpg|thumb|[[Black-tailed godwit]]s of the Icelandic subspecies pass through on migration.]]
Large numbers of ducks winter on the reserve, including many [[Eurasian wigeon]]s, [[Eurasian teal]]s, [[mallard]]s and [[gadwall]]s, and smaller counts of [[common goldeneye|goldeneyes]] and [[northern pintail]]s.<ref name = rspbseas/> Offshore, there may be large "rafts" of [[common scoter]]s, and smaller numbers of [[common eider]]s, [[long-tailed duck]]s, [[velvet scoter]]s<ref name= Taylor/> and [[red-throated loon|red-throated divers]]. [[Brant goose|Brent geese]] feed on [[Ulva|sea lettuce]] and other [[green algae]],<ref name= summers>{{cite journal | last= Summers | first= Ronald W | year = 1990 | title=  The exploitation of beds of green algae by brent geese | journal= [[Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science]] | volume= 31 | issue = 1 | pages= 107–112 | doi =10.1016/0272-7714(90)90031-L | bibcode= 1990ECSS...31..107S }}</ref> and hundreds of [[European golden plover]]s may roost on the reserve at high tide.<ref name =harrup/> In the evenings, large flocks of [[pink-footed goose|pink-footed geese]] fly over Titchwell on their way to roost, and [[Western barn owl|barn owl]]s and [[hen harrier]]s quarter the marshes.<ref name = rspbseas/> This is the season for flocks of [[lesser redpoll]]s, sometimes accompanied by a rarer [[common redpoll]],<ref name= Taylor/> and [[snow bunting]]s are to be found on the beach.<ref name =harrup/>

The reserve's location means that [[bird migration|migrants]] may be found, sometimes in huge numbers when the weather conditions are right,<ref>Elkins (1988) pp. 136–137.</ref><ref>Newton (2010) pp. 97–98.</ref> sometimes including [[vagrant species|vagrant]] rarities.<ref>Newton (2010) p. 50.</ref> Major rarities in recent years include a [[Pacific golden plover]] and a [[great knot]] in 2016,<ref name= BB110b>{{cite journal | last1 = Holt| first1 =Chas and the Rarities Committee |year =2017| title = Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2016| journal =British Birds | volume = 110| issue = 10| pages = 562–631 }}</ref> and a [[slender-billed gull]] and a [[penduline tit]] in 2014.<ref name= BB108>{{cite journal | last1 = Hudson| first1 =Nigel and the Rarities Committee |year =2015| title = Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2014| journal =British Birds | volume = 108| issue = 10| pages = 565–633 }}</ref>

===Other animals and plants===
[[File:Titchwell saltmarsh - geograph.org.uk - 789979.jpg|Saltmarsh behind the beach|thumb]]
[[European water vole|Water voles]] are an endangered species in the UK, with a huge decline in numbers, mainly due to predation by the introduced [[American mink]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gill |first1=Victoria |title=Extinction: Quarter of UK mammals 'under threat' |work=BBC News |date=30 July 2020 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-53585627 |access-date=30 July 2020 |quote=Familiar animals - the red squirrel and the water vole - have been put in the second most urgent category of Endangered.}}</ref> They are still common at Titchwell, which is one of a number of [[East Anglia]]n sites now of national importance for this species.<ref name=pennine>{{cite web | title= Water voles in the North Pennines | url= http://www.northpennines.org.uk/Lists/DocumentLibrary/Attachments/156//Watervoles.pdf | publisher= North Pennines AONB Partnership | url-status= dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140729202427/http://www.northpennines.org.uk/Lists/DocumentLibrary/Attachments/156//Watervoles.pdf | archive-date= 2014-07-29 }} Retrieved 9 November 2011.</ref> Both [[harbour seal|common]] and [[grey seal]]s can be seen off the beach.<ref name= Taylor>Taylor (2009) pp. 136–137.</ref> Other [[vertebrate]]s include [[European eel]]s, [[common toad]]s and [[three-spined stickleback]]s.<ref name =hammond/>

In summer, the dragonfly pond can hold up to ten species of [[Odonata|dragonflies and damselflies]].<ref name = rspbseas/> The nationally scarce moth [[Senta flammea|flame wainscot]] has bred at Titchwell since 1996;<ref name= cadbury>{{cite journal | last= Cadbury | first= James | year= 2001| title= Lepidoptera recording at RSPB reserves, 1999 and 2000 | journal= Lepidoptera Conservation Bulletin | volume= 2 | page= 4 }}</ref> other [[Lepidoptera]] may include migrants such as the [[Vanessa cardui|painted lady]],<ref name= Taylor/> the [[diamondback moth]],<ref name = angle>{{cite web | author= Clifton, Jon | title= Species List for Titchwell RSPB, Norfolk | url= http://www.angleps.com/Species%20List%20for%20Titchwell%20RSPB.pdf | publisher= Jon Clifton Entomological Surveys | access-date= 12 November 2011 | archive-date= 25 April 2012 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120425161047/http://www.angleps.com/Species%20List%20for%20Titchwell%20RSPB.pdf | url-status= dead }} Retrieved 12 November 2011.</ref> and especially the [[silver Y]], which can occur in huge numbers; 90,000 were recorded on the reserve in July 2010, feeding on [[Limonium binervosum|sea lavender]].<ref name=atropos>{{cite web|title=Migrant insect review – End of July 2010 |work=Migrant insect summaries |url=http://www.atropos.info/news.html |publisher=Atropos |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425161047/http://www.atropos.info/news.html |archive-date=2012-04-25 }} Retrieved 12 November 2011.</ref>

The saltmarsh contains [[Salicornia|glassworts]] and [[Spartina anglica|common cord grass]] in the most exposed regions, with a succession of plants following on as the marsh becomes more established: first sea aster, then mainly sea lavender, with [[Halimione portulacoides|sea purslane]] in the creeks and smaller areas of [[Plantago maritima|sea plantain]] and other common marsh plants. The drier areas contain maritime grasses such as [[Agropyron pungens|sea couch grass]] and [[Puccinellia maritima|sea poa grass]]. The reedbeds are dominated by [[Phragmites|common reed]] with [[Juncus gerardii|saltmarsh rush]], [[Ranunculus peltatus|brackish water crowfoot]], [[Bolboschoenus maritimus|sea clubrush]] and [[Typha latifolia|common bulrush]] also common in the various wetland habitats.<ref name = encitation/>