Editing Syriac language (section)

==History==
[[File:Syriac Dialects EN.svg|thumb|265px|The modern distribution of [[Neo-Aramaic languages]], including Neo-Syriac groups]]
[[File:Early Syriac alphabet form of the name of Jesus.svg|thumb|265px|''Īšoˁ'', the Syriac pronunciation of the Hebrew and Aramaic name of [[Jesus]], ''Ishoʿ'']]

History of Syriac language is divided into several successive periods, defined primarily by linguistic, and also by cultural criteria. Some terminological and chronological distinctions exist between different classifications, that were proposed among scholars.{{sfn|Kim|2008|p=506-509}}{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=225-231}}

* "Old Syriac" (Old-Edessan Aramaic), represents the earliest stage in development of the language, that emerged by the beginning of the first century AD as the main Aramaic dialect in the region of [[Osroene]], centered in [[Edessa]], and continued to develop during the next two or three centuries, gradually gaining wider regional significance.{{sfn|Healey|2007|p=115–127}}{{sfn|Healey|2008|p=221-229}}{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=225-227}}
* "Middle Syriac" (Middle-Edessan Aramaic), most commonly known as "Classical Syriac" or "Literary Syriac" ({{lang|syr|ܟܬܒܢܝܐ}} ''{{transliteration|syr|Kṯāḇānāyā}}''), represents the most important period in the history of the language, marked by notable literary, liturgical and cultural development and expansion, from the third to the thirteenth century. The period is further subdivided into three stages:
** Early Classical Syriac (Pre-Classical Syriac), represents the earliest stage in development of Classical Syriac during the third and fourth century, preceding the later linguistic standardization.{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=227-230}}
** Classical Syriac (in the narrower sense of the term), represents the main, standardized stage in development of Classical Syriac, from the fourth century up to the eighth century.{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=230-231}}
** Late Classical Syriac (Post-Classical Syriac), represents the later, somewhat declining stage in development of Classical Syriac, from the eighth century up to the twelfth or thirteenth century.{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=231}}
* "Modern Syriac" (Neo-Syriac Aramaic) represents modern [[Neo-Aramaic languages]].{{sfn|Lipiński|2001|p=70}}{{sfn|Kim|2008|p=505-531}} Neo-Syriac languages did not develop directly from Classical Syriac, but rather from closely related dialects belonging to the same branch of Aramaic. Those dialects have long co-existed with Classical Syriac as a liturgical and literary language, and were significantly influenced by it during the [[late medieval]] and [[early modern]] period.{{sfn|Murre van den Berg|2008|pp=335–352}} Modern Syriac is divided into:
** Modern Eastern Syriac ([[Northeastern Neo-Aramaic]]), including primarily [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]] and [[Chaldean Neo-Aramaic]]. The term is usually not used in reference to [[Neo-Mandaic]], another variety of Eastern Aramaic spoken by the [[Mandaeans]].
** Modern Western Syriac ([[Central Neo-Aramaic]]), including ([[Turoyo language|Turoyo]] and [[Mlahsô language|Mlahsô]]).{{sfn|Lipiński|2001|p=70}}

=== Origins ===
[[File:Alter Orient 0100AD.svg|thumb|265px|The [[Linguistic homeland]] of Edessan Aramaic: the [[Kingdom of Osroene]] between the Romans and Parthians, in the 1st century AD]]

During the first three centuries of the [[Common Era]], a local Aramaic dialect spoken in the [[Kingdom of Osroene]], centered in [[Edessa]], eastern of [[Euphrates]], started to gain prominence and regional significance. There are about eighty extant early inscriptions, written in Old-Edessan Aramaic, dated to the first three centuries AD, with the earliest inscription being dated to the 6th year AD, and the earliest parchment to 243&nbsp;AD. All of these early examples of the language are non-Christian.{{sfn|Healey|2007|p=115–127}}{{sfn|Healey|2008|p=221-229}}{{sfn|Healey|2012|p=641-642}}{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=225-247}}

As a language of public life and administration in the region of Osroene, Edessan Aramaic was gradually given a relatively coherent form, style and grammar that is lacking in other Aramaic dialects of the same period. Since Old-Edessan Aramaic later developed into Classical Syriac, it was retroactively labeled by western scholars as "Old Syrian/Syriac" or "Proto-Syrian/Syriac", although the [[linguistic homeland]] of the language in the region of Osroene, was never part of contemporary (Roman) [[Roman Syria|Syria]].{{sfn|Healey|2007|p=115–127}}{{sfn|Healey|2008|p=221-229}}{{sfn|Healey|2012|p=641-642}}{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=225-247}}

=== Literary Syriac ===
[[File:6thBeatitude.svg|thumb|400px|The sixth [[Beatitudes|beatitude]] ([[Matthew 5:8]]) from an East Syriac Peshitta.<br />{{lang|syr|ܛܘܼܒܲܝܗܘܿܢ ܠܐܲܝܠܹܝܢ ܕܲܕ݂ܟܹܝܢ ܒܠܸܒ̇ܗܘܿܢ܄ ܕܗܸܢ݂ܘܿܢ ܢܸܚܙܘܿܢ ܠܐܲܠܵܗܵܐ܂}}<br />''{{transliteration|syr|Ṭūḇayhōn l-ʾaylên da-ḏḵên b-lebbhōn, d-hennōn neḥzōn l-ʾălāhā}}.''<br />"Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God."]]
{{Further|Syriac literature}}

In the 3rd century, churches in [[Edessa]] began to use local Aramaic dialect as the language of worship. Early literary efforts were focused on creation of an authoritative Aramaic translation of the Bible, the [[Peshitta]] ({{lang|syr|ܦܫܝܛܬܐ}} {{transliteration|syr|Pšīṭtā}}).{{sfn|Peursen|2008|231–256}} At the same time, [[Ephrem the Syrian]] was producing the most treasured collection of poetry and theology in the Edessan Aramaic language, that later became known as Syriac.

In 489, many Syriac-speaking Christians living in the eastern reaches of the Roman Empire fled to the Sasanian Empire to escape persecution and growing animosity with Greek-speaking Christians.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} The Christological differences with the Church of the East led to the bitter [[Nestorian Schism]] in the Syriac-speaking world. As a result, Syriac developed distinctive western and eastern varieties. Although remaining a single language with a high level of comprehension between the varieties, the two employ distinctive variations in pronunciation and writing system, and, to a lesser degree, in vocabulary.

The Syriac language later split into a western variety, used mainly by the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] in upper Mesopotamia and Syria proper, and an eastern variety used mainly by the [[Church of the East]] in central and northeastern Mesopotamia. Religious divisions were also reflected in linguistic differences between the [[West Syriac Rite|Western Syriac Rite]] and the [[East Syriac Rite|Eastern Syriac Rite]]. During the 5th and the 6th century, Syriac reached its height as the lingua franca of [[Mesopotamia]] and surrounding regions. It existed in literary (liturgical) form, as well as in vernacular forms, as the native language of Syriac-speaking populations.

Following the Arab conquest in the 7th century, vernacular forms of Syriac were gradually replaced during the next centuries by the advancing [[Arabic|Arabic language]].{{sfn|Weninger|2012|p=747–755}} Having an Aramaic (Syriac) [[Substrata (linguistics)|substratum]], the regional Arabic dialect ([[Mesopotamian Arabic]]) developed under the strong influence of local Aramaic (Syriac) dialects, sharing significant similarities in language structure, as well as having evident and stark influences from previous (ancient) languages of the region.{{sfn|Khan|2007|p=95-114}}{{sfn|Río Sánchez|2013|p=129-136}}
Syriac-influenced Arabic dialects developed among [[Iraqi Arabs|Iraqi Muslims]], as well as [[Christianity in Iraq|Iraqi Christians]], most of whom descend from native Syriac speakers.

Western Syriac is the official language of the [[West Syriac Rite]], practiced by the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], the [[Syriac Catholic Church]], the [[Maronite Catholic Church]], the [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]], the [[Malabar Independent Syrian Church]], the [[Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church]], the [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]] and some Parishes in the [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Archeparchy of Kottayam|Syro-Malabar Knanaya Archeparchy of Kottayam]].

Eastern Syriac is the liturgical language of the [[East Syriac Rite]], practised in modern times by the ethnic Assyrian followers of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Assyrian Pentecostal Church]], the [[Ancient Church of the East]], the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], as well as the [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]] in India.

Syriac literature is by far the most prodigious of the various Aramaic languages. Its corpus covers poetry, prose, theology, liturgy, hymnody, history, philosophy, science, medicine and natural history. Much of this wealth remains unavailable in critical editions or modern translation.

From the 7th century onwards, Syriac gradually gave way to [[Arabic]] as the spoken language of much of the region, excepting northern Iraq and Mount Lebanon. The [[Mongol invasions and conquests]] of the 13th century, and the religiously motivated massacres of Syriac Christians by [[Timur]] further contributed to the rapid decline of the language. In many places outside of [[Upper Mesopotamia]] and [[Mount Lebanon]], even in liturgy, it was replaced by Arabic.

=== Current status ===
[[File:Tabelayeke bi suryanî Dêra Zehferanê 2008.jpg|thumb|A warning sign in [[Mardin]], [[Turkey]]:
{|
! Syriac
! Turkish
|-
| {{lang|syc|ܫܬܩܐ ܒܒܥܘ}}<br>{{transliteration|syc|šeṯqā, b-ḇāʿū}}<br>'Silence, please')
| {{lang|tr|Lütfen! Sessiz olalım!}}<br>'Please! Let's be quiet!'
|} ]]
Revivals of literary Syriac in recent times have led to some success with the creation of newspapers in written Syriac ({{lang|syr|ܟܬܒܢܝܐ}} ''{{transliteration |syr|Kṯāḇānāyā}}'') similar to the use of [[Modern Standard Arabic]] has been employed since the early decades of the 20th century.{{clarify|date=September 2018|reason=Does the 20th century refer to Syriac or Arabic?}} Modern forms of literary Syriac have also been used not only in religious literature but also in secular genres, often with [[Assyrian nationalism|Assyrian nationalistic]] themes.{{sfn|Kiraz|2007|p=129-142}}

Syriac is spoken as the liturgical language of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], as well as by some of [[Syriac Orthodox Christians (Middle East)|its adherents]].{{sfn|Watt|2009|p=58}} Syriac has been recognised as an official [[minority language]] in Iraq.<ref>{{cite web |last=Anbori |first=Abbas |title=The Comprehensive Policy to Manage the Ethnic Languages in Iraq |pages=4–5 |url=http://www.turkmen.nl/1A_Others/minority-Iraq.pdf |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref> It is also taught in some public schools in [[Iraq]], [[Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|Syria]], [[Palestine]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Farhoud |first=Amira |date=2017-03-28 |title=Syriacs: Still Going Strong |url=https://bethbc.edu/blog/2017/03/28/syriacs-still-going-strong/ |access-date=2023-02-21 |website=Bethlehem Bible College |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Israel]], [[Sweden]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Dorit |first=Shilo |title=The Ben Yehudas of Aramaic |url=https://www.haaretz.com/2010-04-01/ty-article/the-ben-yehudas-of-aramaic/0000017f-e2d2-d9aa-afff-fbdaaa3d0000 |access-date=2023-02-21 |newspaper=[[Haaretz]] |date=2010-04-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Syriac... a language struggling to survive |url=http://admin.iraqupdates.net/p_articles.php/article/25518 |access-date=2023-02-21 |newspaper=Voices of Iraq |date=28 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330162150/http://admin.iraqupdates.net/p_articles.php/article/25518 |archive-date=30 March 2012}}</ref> [[Augsburg]] (Germany) and [[Kerala]] (India).

In 2014, an Assyrian [[preschool|nursery school]] could finally be opened in [[Yeşilköy]], [[Istanbul]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aina.org/news/20140910111521.htm |title=Assyrian School Welcomes Students in Istanbul, Marking a New Beginning |date=2014-09-10 |access-date=2023-02-21 |newspaper=Assyrian International News Agency}}</ref> after waging a lawsuit against the [[Ministry of National Education (Turkey)|Ministry of National Education]] which had denied it permission, but was required to respect non-Muslim minority rights as specified in the [[Treaty of Lausanne]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/culture/2012/12/turkey-denies-assyrian-request-to-open-kindergarten.html |title=Turkey Denies Request to Open Assyrian-Language Kindergarten |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104151615/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/culture/2012/12/turkey-denies-assyrian-request-to-open-kindergarten.html |archive-date=2014-11-04 |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref>

In August 2016, the Ourhi Centre was founded by the Assyrian community in the city of Qamishli, to educate teachers in order to make Syriac an additional language to be taught in public schools in the [[Jazira Region]] of the [[Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/08/syriac-christians-revive-ancient-language-despite-war-2/ |title=Syriac Christians revive ancient language despite war |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=2016-08-17 |access-date=2023-02-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817064715/http://aranews.net/2016/08/syriac-christians-revive-ancient-language-despite-war-2/ |archive-date=2016-08-17}}</ref> which then started with the 2016/17 academic year.<ref name=syriaclanguage>{{cite web |url=https://syrianobserver.com/news/25299/hassakeh_syriac_language_be_taught_pyd_controlled_schools.html |title=Hassakeh: Syriac Language to Be Taught in PYD-controlled Schools |publisher=The Syrian Observer |date=3 October 2016 |first=Zaman |last=al-Wasl |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref>

In April 2023, a team of AI researchers completed the first AI translation model and website for classical Syriac.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syriac.IO – Translator |url=https://www.syriac.io/translate |access-date=2023-05-08 |website=www.syriac.io |language=en}}</ref>