Editing Storytelling (section)

== Learning ==
[[File:Orunamamu.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Orunamamu]] storyteller, [[griot]] with cane]]

Storytelling is a means for sharing and interpreting experiences. [[Peter L. Berger]] says human life is narratively rooted, humans construct their lives and shape their world into homes in terms of these groundings and memories. Stories are universal in that they can bridge cultural, linguistic and age-related divides. Storytelling can be adaptive for all ages, leaving out the notion of [[age segregation]].{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} Storytelling can be used as a method to teach ethics, [[Moral development|values]] and cultural norms and differences.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Michelle|title=A phenomenological evaluation: using storytelling as a primary teaching method|journal=Nurse Education in Practice|year=2004|volume=4|issue=3|pages=184–189|doi=10.1016/s1471-5953(03)00043-x|pmid=19038156}}</ref> Learning is most effective when it takes place in social environments that provide authentic social cues about how knowledge is to be applied.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Andrews|first=Dee|author2=Hull, Donahue|title=Storytelling as an Instructional Method:: Descriptions and Research Question|journal=Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning|date=September 2009|volume=3|issue=2|series=2|pages=6–23|url=http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/afrl/storytelling_instructional.pdf|doi=10.7771/1541-5015.1063|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028202612/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/afrl/storytelling_instructional.pdf|archive-date=2011-10-28|doi-access=free}}</ref> Stories function as a tool to pass on knowledge in a social context. So, every story has 3 parts. First, The setup (The Hero's world before the adventure starts). Second, The Confrontation (The hero's world turned upside down). Third, The Resolution (Hero conquers villain, but it is not enough for Hero to survive. The Hero or World must be transformed). Any story can be framed in such format.

Human knowledge is based on stories and the human brain consists of cognitive machinery necessary to understand, remember and tell stories.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schank|first=Roger C.|author2=Robert P. Abelson |title=Knowledge and Memory: The Real Story|year=1995|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates|location=Hillsdale, NJ|isbn=978-0-8058-1446-0|pages=1–85}}</ref> Humans are storytelling organisms that both individually and socially, lead storied lives.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Connelly|first=F. Michael|author2=[[D. Jean Clandinin]] |title=Stories of Experience and Narrative Inquiry|journal=Educational Researcher|date=Jun–Jul 1990|volume=19|issue=5|series=5|pages=2–14|jstor=1176100|doi=10.3102/0013189x019005002|s2cid=146158473}}</ref> Stories mirror human thought as humans think in narrative structures and most often remember facts in story form. Facts can be understood as smaller versions of a larger story, thus storytelling can supplement analytical thinking. Because storytelling requires auditory and visual senses from listeners, one can learn to organize their mental representation of a story, recognize structure of language and express his or her thoughts.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = McKeough | first1 = A. |display-authors=etal | year = 2008 | title = Storytelling as a Foundation to Literacy Development for Aboriginal Children: Culturally and Developmentally Appropriate Practices | journal = Canadian Psychology | volume =  49| issue = 2| pages =  148–154| doi = 10.1037/0708-5591.49.2.148 | hdl = 1880/112019 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

Stories tend to be based on experiential learning, but learning from an experience is not automatic. Often a person needs to attempt to tell the story of that experience before realizing its value. In this case, it is not only the listener who learns, but the teller who also becomes aware of his or her own unique experiences and background.<ref>{{cite web|last=Doty|first=Elizabeth|title=Transforming Capabilities: Using Story for Knowledge Discovery & Community Development|url=http://www.worklore.com/WorkLore_TransformingCapabilities_EDoty.pdf|publisher=Storytelling in Organizations|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813195910/http://www.worklore.com/WorkLore_TransformingCapabilities_EDoty.pdf|archive-date=2013-08-13}}</ref> This process of storytelling is empowering as the teller effectively conveys ideas and, with practice, is able to demonstrate the potential of human accomplishment. Storytelling taps into existing knowledge and creates bridges both culturally and motivationally toward a solution.

Stories are effective educational tools because listeners become engaged and therefore remember. Storytelling can be seen as a foundation for learning and teaching. While the story listener is engaged, they are able to imagine new perspectives, inviting a transformative and empathetic experience.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rossiter|first=Marsha|title=Narrative and Stories in Adult Teaching and Learning|journal=Educational Resources Information Center 'ERIC Digest'|year=2002|issue=241|url=http://www.calpro-online.org/eric/docs/dig241.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130814085923/http://www.calpro-online.org/eric/docs/dig241.pdf|archive-date=2013-08-14}}</ref> This involves allowing the individual to actively engage in the story as well as observe, listen and participate with minimal guidance.<ref>Battiste, Marie. Indigenous Knowledge and Pedagogy in First Nations Education: A Literature Review with Recommendations. Ottawa, Ont.: Indian and Northern Affairs, 2002</ref> Listening to a storyteller can create lasting personal connections, promote innovative problem solving and foster a shared understanding regarding future ambitions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Denning|first=Stephen|title=The Springboard: How Storytelling Ignites Action in Knowledge-Era Organizations|year=2000|publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|isbn=978-0-7506-7355-6|url=https://archive.org/details/springboardhowst00denn}}</ref> The listener can then activate knowledge and imagine new possibilities. Together a storyteller and listener can seek best practices and invent new solutions. Because stories often have multiple layers of meanings, listeners have to listen closely to identify the underlying knowledge in the story. Storytelling is used as a tool to teach children the importance of respect through the practice of listening.<ref>Archibald, Jo-Ann. (2008). Indigenous Storywork: Educating The Heart, Mind, Body and Spirit. Vancouver, British Columbia: The University of British Columbia.</ref> As well as connecting children with their environment, through the theme of the stories, and give them more autonomy by using repetitive statements, which improve their learning to learn competence.<ref>Ellis, Gail and Jean Brewster. Tell it Again!. The New Storytelling Handbook for Primary Teachers. Harlow: Penguin English, 2002. Print.</ref> It is also used to teach children to have respect for all life, value inter-connectedness and always work to overcome adversity. To teach this a [[Kinesthetic learning ]]style would be used, involving the listeners through music, dream interpretation, or dance.<ref>Fisher-Yoshida, Beth, Kathy Dee. Geller and Steven A. Schapiro. Innovations in Transformative Learning: Space, Culture, & the Arts. New York: Peter Lang, 2009.</ref>

=== In indigenous cultures ===
{{Further|Indigenous storytelling in North America}}

[[File:The Historian (The How and Why Library).jpg|thumb|upright|left|''The Historian'' – An indigenous artist is painting in sign language, on [[buckskin (leather)|buckskin]], the story of a battle with American soldiers.]]

For indigenous cultures of the Americas, storytelling is used as an oral form of language associated with practices and [[Moral development|values]] essential to developing one's identity. This is because everyone in the community can add their own touch and perspective to the narrative collaboratively – both individual and culturally shared perspectives have a place in the co-creation of the story. [[Oral storytelling]] in indigenous communities differs from other forms of stories because they are told not only for entertainment, but for teaching values.<ref name="Archibald 2008">Archibald, Jo-Ann, (2008). Indigenous Storywork: Educating The Heart, Mind, Body and Spirit. Vancouver, British Columbia: The University of British Columbia Press.</ref> For example, the [[Sto:lo]] community in Canada focuses on reinforcing children's identity by telling stories about the land to explain their roles.<ref name="Archibald 2008"/> 

Furthermore, Storytelling is a way to teach younger members of indigenous communities about their culture and their identities. In Donna Eder's study, [[Navajos]] were interviewed about storytelling practices that they have had in the past and what changes they want to see in the future. They notice that storytelling makes an impact on the lives of the children of the Navajos. According to some of the Navajos that were interviewed, storytelling is one of many main practices that teaches children the important principles to live a good life.<ref name=":0" /> In indigenous communities, stories are a way to pass knowledge on from generation to generation.

For some indigenous people, experience has no separation between the physical world and the spiritual world. Thus, some indigenous people communicate to their children through ritual, storytelling, or dialogue. Community values, learned through storytelling, help to guide future generations and aid in identity formation.<ref>Vannini, Phillip, and J. Patrick Williams. Authenticity in Culture, Self and Society. Farnham, England: Ashgate Pub., 2009.</ref>

In the [[Quechua people|Quechua community]] of Highland Peru, there is no separation between adults and children. This allows for children to learn storytelling through their own interpretations of the given story. Therefore, children in the [[Quechua people|Quechua community]] are encouraged to listen to the story that is being told in order to learn about their identity and culture. Sometimes, children are expected to sit quietly and listen actively. This enables them to engage in activities as independent learners.<ref>Bolin, Inge. (2006). Growing Up in a Culture of Respect: Child Rearing in Highland Peru. Austin, Texas: The University of Texas Press.</ref>

This teaching practice of storytelling allowed children to formulate ideas based on their own experiences and perspectives. In [[Navajo]] communities, for children and adults, storytelling is one of the many effective ways to educate both the young and old about their cultures, identities and history. Storytelling help the Navajos know who they are, where they come from and where they belong.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|jstor = 25166626|title = Bringing Navajos Storytelling Practices into Schools. The Importance of Maintaining Cultural Integrity|last = Eder|first = Donna|date = September 2007|journal = Anthropology & Education Quarterly|volume = 6|issue = 3|pages = 559–577}}</ref>

Storytelling in indigenous cultures is sometimes passed on by oral means in a quiet and relaxing environment, which usually coincides with family or tribal community gatherings and official events such as family occasions, rituals, or ceremonial practices.<ref>Hodge, et al. Utilizing Traditional Storytelling to Promote Wellness in American Indian Communities.</ref> During the telling of the story, [[Child Integration|children]] may act as participants by asking questions, acting out the story, or telling smaller parts of the story.<ref>Hodge, F.S., Pasqua, A., Marquez, C.A., & Geishirt-Cantrell, B. (2002). Utilizing traditional storytelling to promote wellness in American Indian communities.</ref> Furthermore, stories are not often told in the same manner twice, resulting in many variations of a single myth. This is because narrators may choose to insert new elements into old stories dependent upon the relationship between the storyteller and the audience, making the story correspond to each unique situation.<ref name="Silko, L. Storyteller 1981">Silko, L. Storyteller. New York, New York: Seaver Books Pub., 1981.</ref>

Indigenous cultures also use [[teasing#Teasing in Indigenous American Communities|instructional ribbing]]— a playful form of correcting children's undesirable behavior— in their stories. For example, the [[Ojibwe]] (or Chippewa) tribe uses the tale of an owl snatching away misbehaving children. The caregiver will often say, "The owl will come and stick you in his ears if you don't stop crying!" Thus, this form of teasing serves as a tool to correct inappropriate behavior and promote cooperation.<ref>Hilger, 1951. Chippewa Childlife and its Cultural Background.</ref>

==== Types ====
There are various types of stories among many indigenous communities. Communication in Indigenous American communities is rich with stories, myths, philosophies and narratives that serve as a means to exchange information.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/aprci/275|title = Learning From the Grandmothers: Incorporating Indigenous Principles Into Qualitative Research|last = Loppie|first = Charlotte|date = February 2007|journal = Qualitative Health Research|volume = 17|issue = 2|pages = 276–84|doi = 10.1177/1049732306297905|pmid = 17220397|s2cid = 5735471}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Howard |first1=Victoria |title=Clackamas Chinook performance art: verse form interpretations |last2=Mason |first2=Catharine |last3=Jacobs |first3=Melville |date=2021 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press American Indian Research Institute, Indiana University |isbn=978-1-4962-2411-8 |series=Studies in the anthropology of North American Indians series |location=Lincoln Bloomington}}</ref> These stories may be used for coming of age themes, core values, morality, literacy and history. Very often, the stories are used to instruct and teach children about [[Moral development|cultural values and lessons]].<ref name="Silko, L. Storyteller 1981"/> The meaning within the stories is not always explicit, and children are expected to make their own meaning of the stories. In the [[Lakota People|Lakota Tribe]] of North America, for example, young girls are often told the story of the [[White Buffalo Calf Woman]], who is a spiritual figure that protects young girls from the whims of men. In the [[Odawa|Odawa Tribe]], young boys are often told the story of a young man who never took care of his body, and as a result, his feet fail to run when he tries to escape predators. This story serves as an indirect means of encouraging the young boys to take care of their bodies.<ref>Pelletier, W. Childhood in an Indian Village. 1970.</ref>

Narratives can be shared to express the values or morals among family, relatives, or people who are considered part of the close-knit community. Many stories in indigenous American communities all have a "surface" story, that entails knowing certain information and clues to unlocking the metaphors in the story. The underlying message of the story being told, can be understood and interpreted with clues that hint to a certain interpretation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Indigenous Storywork: Educating the Heart, Mind, and Spirit|last = Archibald|first = Jo-Ann|publisher = University of British Columbia Press|year = 2008|isbn = 978-0-7748-1401-0|location = Canada|pages = 76}}</ref> In order to make meaning from these stories, elders in the [[Sto:lo]] community for example, emphasize the importance in learning how to listen, since it requires the senses to bring one's heart and mind together.<ref name=":1" /> For instance, a way in which children learn about the metaphors significant for the society they live in, is by listening to their elders and participating in rituals where they respect one another.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Growing Up in a Culture of Respect: Child Rearing in Highland Peru|last = Bolin|first = Inge|publisher = University of Texas Press|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0-292-71298-0|location = Austin|pages = 136}}</ref>

==== Passing on values ====
Stories in indigenous cultures encompass a variety of [[Moral development|values]]. These values include an emphasis on individual responsibility, concern for the environment and communal welfare.<ref>Hodge, et al. 2002. Utilizing Traditional Storytelling to Promote Wellness in American Indian Communities.</ref>

Stories are based on values passed down by older generations to shape the foundation of the community.<ref>Jeff Corntassel, Chaw-win-is, and T'lakwadzi. "Indigenous Storytelling, Truth-telling and Community Approaches to Reconciliation." ESC: English Studies in Canada 35.1 (2009): 137–59)</ref> Storytelling is used as a bridge for knowledge and understanding allowing the values of "self" and "community" to connect and be learned as a whole. Storytelling in the [[Navajo]] community for example allows for community values to be learned at different times and places for different learners. Stories are told from the perspective of other people, animals, or the natural elements of the earth.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Life Lessons through Storytelling: Children's Exploration of Ethics|last = Eder|first = Donna|publisher = Indiana University Press|year = 2010|isbn = 978-0-253-22244-2|pages = 7–23}}</ref> In this way, children learn to value their place in the world as a person in relation to others. Typically, stories are used as an [[informal learning]] tool in Indigenous American communities, and can act as an alternative method for reprimanding children's bad behavior. In this way, stories are non-confrontational, which allows the child to discover for themselves what they did wrong and what they can do to adjust the behavior.<ref>Battiste, Marie. Indigenous Knowledge and Pedagogy in First Nations Education: A Literature Review with Recommendations. Ottawa, Ont.: Indian and Northern Affairs, 2002.</ref>

Parents in the [[Arizona Tewa]] community, for example, teach morals to their children through traditional narratives.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kroskrity|first=P. V.|title=Narrative reproductions: Ideologies of storytelling, authoritative words and generic regimentation in the village of Tewa.|journal=Journal of Linguistic Anthropology|date=2009|volume=19|pages=40–56|doi=10.1111/j.1548-1395.2009.01018.x|doi-access=free}}</ref> Lessons focus on several topics including historical or "sacred" stories or more domestic disputes. Through storytelling, the Tewa community emphasizes the traditional wisdom of the ancestors and the importance of collective as well as individual identities. Indigenous communities teach children valuable skills and morals through the actions of good or mischievous stock characters while also allowing room for children to make meaning for themselves. By not being given every element of the story, children rely on their own experiences and not formal teaching from adults to fill in the gaps.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pelletier|first=Wilfred|title=Childhood in an Indian Village|journal=Two Articles|date=1969}}</ref>

When children listen to stories, they periodically vocalize their ongoing [[attention]] and accept the extended turn of the storyteller. The emphasis on attentiveness to surrounding events and the importance of oral tradition in indigenous communities teaches children the skill of keen attention. For example, Children of the [[Tohono O'odham]] American Indian community who engaged in more cultural practices were able to recall the events in a verbally presented story better than those who did not engage in cultural practices.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tsethlikai|first=M.|author2=Rogoff |title=Involvement in traditional cultural practices and American Indian children's incidental recall of a folktale.|journal=Developmental Psychology|date=2013|volume=49|issue=3|pages=568–578|doi=10.1037/a0031308|pmid=23316771}}</ref> Body movements and gestures help to communicate values and keep stories alive for future generations.<ref>Fisher, Mary Pat. Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths. London: I.B. Tauris, 1997</ref> Elders, parents and grandparents are typically involved in teaching the children the cultural ways, along with history, community values and teachings of the land.<ref>Hornberger, Nancy H. Indigenous Literacies in the Americas: Language Planning from the Bottom up. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter, 1997</ref>

Children in indigenous communities can also learn from the underlying message of a story. For example, in a [[Nahua peoples|nahuatl]] community near [[Mexico City]], stories about ahuaques or hostile water dwelling spirits that guard over the bodies of water, contain morals about respecting the environment. If the protagonist of a story, who has accidentally broken something that belongs to the ahuaque, does not replace it or give back in some way to the ahuaque, the [[protagonist]] dies.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=55703708|title = Infancia nahua y transmisión de la cosmovisión: los ahuaques o espíritus pluviales en la Sierra de Texcoco (México)|last = Lorente Fernández|first = David|date = 2006|journal = Boletín de Antropología Universidad de Antioquia|pages = 152–168|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208163320/http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=55703708|archive-date = 2015-12-08}}</ref> In this way, storytelling serves as a way to teach what the community values, such as valuing the environment.

Storytelling also serves to deliver a particular message during spiritual and ceremonial functions. In the ceremonial use of storytelling, the unity building theme of the message becomes more important than the time, place and characters of the message. Once the message is delivered, the story is finished. As cycles of the tale are told and retold, story units can recombine, showing various outcomes for a person's actions.<ref>VanDeusen, Kira. Raven and the Rock: Storytelling in Chukotka. Seattle [u.a.: Univ. of Washington [u.a., 1999.</ref>