Editing Stephen Wolfram (section)

== Later career ==

=== Complex systems and cellular automata ===
In 1983, Wolfram left for the School of Natural Sciences of the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in Princeton. By that time, he was no longer interested in particle physics. Instead, he began pursuing investigations into [[cellular automaton|cellular automata]],{{cn|date=January 2023}} mainly with computer simulations. He produced a series of papers investigating the class of [[elementary cellular automaton|elementary cellular automata]], conceiving the [[Wolfram code]], a naming system for one-dimensional cellular automata, and a [[cellular automaton#Classification|classification scheme]] for the complexity of their behaviour.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Regis |first1=Edward |title=Who got Einstein's office? Eccentricity and Genius at the Institute for Advanced Study |date=1987 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |location=Reading, Mass |isbn=0201120658 |page=5 |url=https://archive.org/details/whogoteinsteinso0000regi}}</ref> He conjectured that the [[Rule 110]] cellular automaton might be [[Turing complete]], which a research assistant to Wolfram, [[Matthew Cook]], later proved correct.<ref name="proof">{{Cite journal|url = http://www.complex-systems.com/abstracts/v15_i01_a01.html|title = Universality in Elementary Cellular Automata|last = Cook|first = Matthew|date = 2004|journal = Complex Systems|access-date = 24 June 2015|volume = 15|issue = 1| pages=1–40 | doi=10.25088/ComplexSystems.15.1.1 |issn = 0891-2513}}</ref> Wolfram sued Cook and temporarily blocked publication of the work on Rule 110 for allegedly violating a [[non-disclosure agreement]] until Wolfram could publish the work in his controversial book ''[[A New Kind of Science]]''.<ref name="bio">{{Cite journal |last1=Giles |first1=J. |year=2002 |title=Stephen Wolfram: What kind of science is this? |journal=Nature |volume=417 |issue=6886 |pages=216–218 |bibcode=2002Natur.417..216G |doi=10.1038/417216a |pmid=12015565 |s2cid=10636328}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Martínez |first1=Genaro J. |last2=Seck-Tuoh-Mora |first2=Juan C. |last3=Chapa-Vergara |first3=Sergio V. |last4=Lemaitre |first4=Christian |date=2020-03-03 |title=Brief notes and history of computing in Mexico during 50 years |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17445760.2019.1608990 |journal=International Journal of Parallel, Emergent and Distributed Systems |language=en |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=185–192 |doi=10.1080/17445760.2019.1608990 |issn=1744-5760|arxiv=1905.07527 }}</ref> Wolfram's cellular-automata work came to be cited in more than 10,000 papers.<ref name="Levy">{{Cite web |last=Levy |first=Steven |date=1 June 2002 |title=The Man Who Cracked The Code to Everything... |url=https://www.wired.com/2002/06/wolfram/ |access-date=22 November 2018 |website=Wired.com}}</ref>

In the mid-1980s, Wolfram worked on simulations of physical processes (such as [[turbulence|turbulent fluid flow]]) with cellular automata on the [[Connection Machine]] alongside [[Richard Feynman]]<ref name="DH">{{cite web|url=http://www.kurzweilai.net/articles/art0504.html?printable=1|title=Richard Feynman and The Connection Machine|author=W. Daniel Hillis|publisher=Physics Today|date=February 1989|access-date=3 November 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090728072503/http://www.kurzweilai.net/articles/art0504.html?printable=1|archive-date=28 July 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and helped initiate the field of [[complex systems]].{{cn|date=January 2023}} In 1984, he was a participant in the Founding Workshops of the [[Santa Fe Institute]], along with Nobel laureates [[Murray Gell-Mann]], [[Manfred Eigen]], and [[Philip Warren Anderson]], and future laureate [[Frank Wilczek]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1216/c98def031faa344d66dead45117d0b188491.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811230248/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1216/c98def031faa344d66dead45117d0b188491.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2018-08-11|title=Emerging Syntheses in Science: Proceedings of the Founding Workshops of the Santa Fe Institute|last=Pines|first=David|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Pines|publisher=Addison-Wesley|year=2018|isbn=9780429492594|location=Menlo Park, California|pages=183–190|doi=10.1201/9780429492594|s2cid=142670544}}</ref> In 1986, he founded the Center for Complex Systems Research (CCSR) at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]].<ref name="wired.com">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/10.06/wolfram_pr.html|title=The Man Who Cracked The Code to Everything|access-date=7 April 2012 | magazine=Wired}}</ref> In 1987, he founded the journal ''[[Complex Systems (journal)|Complex Systems]]''.<ref name="wired.com"/>

=== Symbolic Manipulation Program ===

{{Main|Symbolic Manipulation Program}}
Wolfram led the development of the [[computer algebra system]] SMP (''[[Symbolic Manipulation Program]]'') in the Caltech physics department during 1979–1981. A dispute with the administration over the intellectual property rights regarding SMP—patents, copyright, and faculty involvement in commercial ventures—eventually led him to resign from Caltech.<ref name="torn">{{Cite journal | last1 = Kolata | first1 = G. | title = Caltech Torn by Dispute over Software | doi = 10.1126/science.220.4600.932 | journal = Science | volume = 220 | issue = 4600 | pages = 932–934 | year = 1983 | pmid =  17816011|bibcode = 1983Sci...220..932K }}</ref> SMP was further developed and marketed commercially by Inference Corp. of Los Angeles during 1983–1988.

=== Mathematica ===
{{Main|Mathematica}}
In 1986, Wolfram left the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] for the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]], where he had founded their Center for Complex Systems Research, and started to develop the computer algebra system [[Wolfram Mathematica|Mathematica]], which was released on 23 June 1988, when he left academia. In 1987, he founded [[Wolfram Research]], which continues to develop and market the program.<ref name=bio />

=== ''A New Kind of Science'' ===
{{Main|A New Kind of Science}}

From 1992 to 2002, Wolfram worked on his controversial book ''[[A New Kind of Science]]'',<ref name="bio"/><ref name="newkind">{{Cite book|isbn = 1579550088|title = A New Kind of Science|last1 = Wolfram|first1 = Stephen|year = 2002| publisher=Wolfram Media }}</ref> which presents an empirical study of simple computational systems. Additionally, it argues that for fundamental reasons these types of systems, rather than traditional mathematics, are needed to model and understand complexity in nature. Wolfram's conclusion is that the universe is discrete in its nature, and runs on fundamental laws that can be described as simple programs. He predicts that a realization of this within scientific communities will have a revolutionary influence on physics, chemistry, biology, and most other scientific areas, hence the book's title. The book was met with skepticism and criticism that Wolfram took credit for the work of others and made conclusions without evidence to support them.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stephen Wolfram, A New Kind of Science |url=http://bactra.org/reviews/wolfram/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=bactra.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Giles |first=Jim |date=2002-05-01 |title=What kind of science is this? |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/417216a |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=417 |issue=6886 |pages=216–218 |doi=10.1038/417216a |pmid=12015565 |bibcode=2002Natur.417..216G |s2cid=10636328 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref>

=== Wolfram Alpha computational knowledge engine ===
{{Main|Wolfram Alpha}}

In March 2009, Wolfram announced Wolfram Alpha, an [[answer engine]]. Wolfram Alpha launched in May 2009,<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://blog.wolfram.com/2009/03/05/wolframalpha-is-coming/ |title=Wolfram&#124;Alpha Is Coming! |last=Wolfram |first=Stephen |date=5 March 2009 |journal=Wolfram Blog|access-date=9 March 2009}}</ref> and a paid-for version with extra features launched in February 2012 that was met with criticism for its high price, which later dropped from $50 to $2.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Sorrel |first=Charlie |title=Wolfram Alpha for iPhone Drops from $50 to $2 |language=en-US |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/04/wolfram-alpha-for-iphone-drops-from-50-to-2/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.wolframalpha.com/2012/02/08/announcing-wolframalpha-pro | work=Wolfram{{!}}Alpha blog|title=Announcing Wolfram{{!}}Alpha Pro|access-date=7 April 2012}}</ref> The engine is based on [[natural language processing]] and a large library of rules-based algorithms. The [[application programming interface]] allows other applications to extend and enhance Wolfram Alpha.<ref>
{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2009/mar/09/search-engine-google |title=British search engine 'could rival Google' |last=Johnson |first=Bobbie |date=9 March 2009 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=9 March 2009}}</ref> <!---- Wolfram presented a talk at the [[TED (conference)|TED]] conference in 2010,
<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Steven|last=Levy|publisher=WIRED|title=TED 2010: How to Ace a TED Talk|url=https://www.wired.com/epicenter/2010/02/ted-2010-how-to-ace-a-ted-talk/|date=12 February 2010}}</ref>
<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Stephen Wolfram: Computing a theory of everything|publisher=TED|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/stephen_wolfram_computing_a_theory_of_everything.html|date=February 2010}}</ref> and he was named Speaker of the Event for his 2012 talk at [[SXSW]].
<ref>{{Cite web|title=SXSW Award Winners 2012|url=http://sxsw.com/interactive/awards/winners|access-date=16 May 2012}}</ref> ---->

=== Touchpress ===
{{Main|Touchpress}}

In 2010, Wolfram co-founded [[Touchpress]] with [[Theodore Gray]], Max Whitby, and John Cromie. The company specialised in creating in-depth premium apps and games covering a wide range of educational subjects designed for children, parents, students, and educators. Touchpress published more than 100 apps.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/pressroom/newsreleases/2011/march/popular-science-columnist-earns-prestigious-american-chemical-society-award.html|title=Popular Science columnist earns prestigious American Chemical Society award|website=American Chemical Society|language=en|access-date=2018-12-25}}</ref> The company is no longer active.

=== Wolfram Language ===
{{Main|Wolfram Language}}

In March 2014, at the annual [[South by Southwest]] (SXSW) event, Wolfram officially announced the [[Wolfram Language]] as a new general [[multi-paradigm programming language]],<ref>[http://reference.wolfram.com/language/ Wolfram Language reference page Retrieved on 14 May 2014]</ref> though it was previously available through Mathematica and not an entirely new programming language. The documentation for the language was pre-released in October 2013 to coincide with the bundling of [[Mathematica]] and the Wolfram Language on every [[Raspberry Pi]] computer with some controversy because of the proprietary nature of the Wolfram Language.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shankland|first=Stephen|title=Premium Mathematica software free on budget Raspberry Pi|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/premium-mathematica-software-free-on-budget-raspberry-pi/|access-date=2021-03-18|website=CNET|language=en}}</ref> While the Wolfram Language has existed for over 30 years as the primary programming language used in [[Mathematica]], it was not officially named until 2014, and is not widely used.<ref>[http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/bitwise/2014/03/stephen_wolfram_s_new_programming_language_can_he_make_the_world_computable.html Slate's article Stephen Wolfram's New Programming Language: He Can Make The World Computable, 6 March 2014. Retrieved on 14 May 2014.]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=TIOBE Index |url=https://www.tiobe.com/tiobe-index/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=TIOBE |language=en-US}}</ref> 

=== Wolfram Physics Project ===
[[File:Wolfram Physics Spatial Hypergraph.png|thumb|A spatial [[hypergraph]]]]
In April 2020, Wolfram announced the "Wolfram Physics Project" as an effort to reduce and explain all the laws of physics within a paradigm of a [[hypergraph]] that is transformed by minimal [[abstract rewriting system|rewriting rules]] that obey the [[Church–Rosser theorem|Church–Rosser property]].<ref>{{Cite magazine|title=Stephen Wolfram Invites You to Solve Physics|language=en|magazine=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/story/stephen-wolfram-invites-you-to-solve-physics/|access-date=2020-04-15|issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-14|title=Stephen Wolfram's hypergraph project aims for a fundamental theory of physics|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/stephen-wolfram-hypergraph-project-fundamental-theory-physics|access-date=2020-04-23|website=Science News|language=en-US}}</ref> The effort is a continuation of the ideas he originally described in ''A New Kind of Science''. Wolfram claims that "From an extremely simple model, we're able to reproduce special relativity, general relativity and the core results of quantum mechanics."

Physicists are generally unimpressed with Wolfram's claim, and say his results are non-quantitative and arbitrary.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Becker|first1=Adam|date=6 May 2020|title=Physicists Criticize Stephen Wolfram's 'Theory of Everything'|language=en|work=Scientific American|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/physicists-criticize-stephen-wolframs-theory-of-everything/|access-date=10 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=2020|title=The Trouble With Stephen Wolfram's New 'Fundamental Theory of Physics'|language=en-us|work=Gizmodo|url=https://gizmodo.com/the-trouble-with-stephen-wolfram-s-new-fundamental-theo-1842985419|access-date=23 April 2020}}</ref>