Editing Steam turbine (section)

===Blade design challenges===
A major challenge facing turbine design was reducing the [[creep (deformation)|creep]] experienced by the blades. Because of the high temperatures and high stresses of operation, steam turbine materials become damaged through these mechanisms. As temperatures are increased in an effort to improve turbine efficiency, creep becomes significant. To limit creep, thermal coatings and [[superalloy]]s with solid-solution strengthening and [[grain boundary strengthening]] are used in blade designs.

Protective coatings are used to reduce the thermal damage and to limit [[oxidation]]. These coatings are often stabilized [[zirconium dioxide]]-based ceramics. Using a thermal protective coating limits the temperature exposure of the nickel superalloy. This reduces the creep mechanisms experienced in the blade. Oxidation coatings limit efficiency losses caused by a buildup on the outside of the blades, which is especially important in the high-temperature environment.{{sfn|Tamarin|2002|p=5–}}

The nickel-based blades are alloyed with aluminum and titanium to improve strength and creep resistance. The [[microstructure]] of these alloys is composed of different regions of composition. A uniform dispersion of the gamma-prime phase – a combination of nickel, aluminum, and titanium – promotes the strength and creep resistance of the blade due to the microstructure.{{sfn|Bhadeshia|2003}}

[[Refractory]] elements such as [[rhenium]] and [[ruthenium]] can be added to the alloy to improve creep strength. The addition of these elements reduces the diffusion of the gamma prime phase, thus preserving the [[Fatigue (material)|fatigue]] resistance, strength, and creep resistance.{{sfn|Latief|Kakehi|2013}}