Editing Statue of Liberty (section)

===Construction in France===
[[File:Head of the Statue of Liberty on display in a park in Paris.jpg|thumb|The statue's head on exhibit at the [[Exposition Universelle (1878)|Paris World's Fair]], 1878]]

On his return to Paris in 1877, Bartholdi concentrated on completing the head, which was exhibited at the 1878 [[Exposition Universelle (1878)|Paris World's Fair]]. Fundraising continued, with models of the statue put on sale. Tickets to view the construction activity at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop were also offered.{{sfn|Khan|2010|p=137}} The French government authorized a lottery; among the prizes were valuable silver plate and a [[terracotta]] model of the statue. By the end of 1879, about 250,000&nbsp;francs had been raised.{{sfn|Bell|Abrams|1984|p=32}}

The head and arm had been built with assistance from [[Eugène Viollet-le-Duc|Viollet-le-Duc]], who fell ill in 1879. He soon died, leaving no indication of how he intended to transition from the copper skin to his proposed masonry pier.{{sfn|Khan|2010|pp=136–137}}{{sfn|Hayden|Despont|1986|p=25}} The following year, Bartholdi was able to obtain the services of the innovative designer and builder [[Gustave Eiffel]].{{sfn|Khan|2010|p=137}} Eiffel and his structural engineer, [[Maurice Koechlin]], decided to abandon the pier and instead build an iron [[truss]] tower. Eiffel opted not to use a completely rigid structure, which would force stresses to accumulate in the skin and lead eventually to cracking. A secondary skeleton was attached to the center pylon, then, to enable the statue to move slightly in the winds of New York Harbor, and, since the metal would expand on hot summer days, he loosely connected the support structure to the skin using flat iron bars<ref name=TV /> or springs,{{sfn|Hayden|Despont|1986|p=26}} which culminated in a mesh of metal straps, known as "saddles", that were riveted to the skin, providing firm support. In a labor-intensive process, each saddle had to be crafted individually.{{sfn|Moreno|2000|p=22}}{{sfn|Khan|2010|pp=139–143}} To prevent [[galvanic corrosion]] between the copper skin and the iron support structure, Eiffel insulated the skin with [[asbestos]] impregnated with [[shellac]].{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=30}}

Eiffel's design made the statue one of the earliest examples of [[curtain wall (architecture)|curtain wall]] construction, in which the exterior of the structure is not [[wikt:load bearing|load bearing]], but is instead supported by an interior framework. He included two interior [[Spiral stairs|spiral staircases]], to make it easier for visitors to reach the observation point in the crown.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=33}} Access to an observation platform surrounding the torch was also provided, but the narrowness of the arm allowed for only a single ladder, {{convert|40|ft}} long.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=32}} As the pylon tower arose, Eiffel and Bartholdi coordinated their work carefully so that completed segments of skin would fit exactly on the support structure.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=34}} The components of the pylon tower were built in the [[Eiffel (company)|Eiffel]] factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of [[Levallois-Perret]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.leparisien.fr/hauts-de-seine/la-tour-a-vu-le-jour-a-levallois-30-04-2004-2004947854.php |title=La tour a vu le jour à Levallois |date=April 30, 2004 |work=Le Parisien |access-date=December 8, 2012 |language=fr |archive-date=April 7, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407203339/https://www.leparisien.fr/hauts-de-seine/la-tour-a-vu-le-jour-a-levallois-30-04-2004-2004947854.php |url-status=live }}</ref>

The change in structural material from masonry to iron allowed Bartholdi to change his plans for the statue's assembly. He had originally expected to assemble the skin on-site as the masonry pier was built; instead, he decided to build the statue in France and have it disassembled and transported to the United States for reassembly in place on Bedloe's Island.{{sfn|Khan|2010|p=144}}

In a symbolic act, the first rivet placed into the skin, fixing a copper plate onto the statue's big toe, was driven by [[United States Ambassador to France]] [[Levi P. Morton]].<ref name=PBS/> The skin was not, however, crafted in exact sequence from low to high; work proceeded on a number of segments simultaneously in a manner often confusing to visitors.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=36–38}} Some work was performed by contractors—one of the fingers was made to Bartholdi's exacting specifications by a coppersmith in the southern French town of [[Montauban]].{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=39}} By 1882, the statue was complete up to the waist, an event Bartholdi celebrated by inviting reporters to lunch on a platform built within the statue.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=38}} Laboulaye died in 1883. He was succeeded as chairman of the French committee by Lesseps. The completed statue was formally presented to Ambassador Morton at a ceremony in Paris on July 4, 1884, and Lesseps announced that the French government had agreed to pay for its transport to New York.{{sfn|Bell|Abrams|1984|p=37}} The statue remained intact in Paris pending sufficient progress on the pedestal; by January 1885, this had occurred and the statue was disassembled and crated for its ocean voyage.{{sfn|Bell|Abrams|1984|p=38}}
[[File:Pedestal for Bartholdi's Statue of Liberty.jpg|thumb|[[Richard Morris Hunt]]'s pedestal under construction in June 1885]]

The committees in the United States faced great difficulties in obtaining funds for the construction of the pedestal. The [[Panic of 1873]] had led to an economic depression that persisted through much of the decade. The Liberty statue project was not the only such undertaking that had difficulty raising money: construction of the obelisk later known as the [[Washington Monument]] sometimes stalled for years; it would ultimately take over three-and-a-half decades to complete.{{sfn|Khan|2010|pp=159–160}} There was criticism both of Bartholdi's statue and of the fact that the gift required Americans to foot the bill for the pedestal. In the years following the Civil War, most Americans preferred realistic artworks depicting heroes and events from the nation's history, rather than allegorical works like the Liberty statue.{{sfn|Khan|2010|pp=159–160}} There was also a feeling that Americans should design American public works—the selection of Italian-born [[Constantino Brumidi]] to decorate the Capitol had provoked intense criticism, even though he was a naturalized U.S. citizen.{{sfn|Khan|2010|p=163}} ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'' declared its wish that "M. Bartholdi and our French cousins had 'gone the whole figure' while they were about it, and given us statue and pedestal at once."{{sfn|Khan|2010|p=161}} ''The New York Times'' stated that "no true patriot can countenance any such expenditures for bronze females in the present state of our finances."{{sfn|Khan|2010|p=160}} Faced with these criticisms, the American committees took little action for several years.{{sfn|Khan|2010|p=160}}

====Design====
[[File:Leslie Liberty.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper]]'', June 1885, showing (clockwise from left) [[woodcut]]s of the completed statue in Paris, Bartholdi, and the statue's interior structure]]

The foundation of Bartholdi's statue was to be laid inside [[Fort Wood (New York)|Fort Wood]], a disused army base on Bedloe's Island constructed between 1807 and 1811. Since 1823, it had rarely been used, though during the Civil War, it had served as a recruiting station.{{sfn|Moreno|2000|p=91}} The fortifications of the structure were in the shape of an eleven-point star. The statue's foundation and pedestal were aligned so that it would face southeast, greeting ships entering the harbor from the Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=stats/>
In 1881, the New York committee commissioned [[Richard Morris Hunt]] to design the pedestal. Within months, Hunt submitted a detailed plan, indicating that he expected construction to take about nine months.{{sfn|Khan|2010|p=169}} He proposed a pedestal {{convert|114|ft}} in height; faced with money problems, the committee reduced that to {{convert|89|ft}}.<ref name=stal/>

Hunt's pedestal design contains elements of classical architecture, including [[Doric order|Doric]] portals, as well as some elements influenced by [[Aztec architecture]].<ref name=TV /> The large mass is fragmented with architectural detail, in order to focus attention on the statue.<ref name=stal/> In form, it is a truncated pyramid, {{convert|62|ft}} square at the base and {{convert|39.4|ft}} at the top. The four sides are identical in appearance. Above the door on each side, there are ten disks upon which Bartholdi proposed to place the coats of arms of the states (between 1876 and 1889, there were 38 of them), although this was not done. Above that, a balcony was placed on each side, framed by pillars. Bartholdi placed an observation platform near the top of the pedestal, above which the statue itself rises.<ref name=Bartholdi62/> According to author [[Louis Auchincloss]], the pedestal "craggily evokes the power of an ancient Europe over which rises the dominating figure of the Statue of Liberty".<ref name=stal/> The committee hired former army General [[Charles Pomeroy Stone]] to oversee the construction work.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=71–72}} Construction on the {{convert|15|ft|m|adj=mid|-deep}} foundation began in 1883, and the pedestal's cornerstone was laid in 1884.{{sfn|Khan|2010|p=169}} In Hunt's original conception, the pedestal was to have been made of solid [[granite]]. Financial concerns again forced him to revise his plans; the final design called for poured concrete walls, up to {{convert|20|ft}} thick, faced with granite blocks.{{sfn|Sutherland|2003|pp=49–50}}{{sfn|Moreno|2000|pp=184–186}} This Stony Creek granite came from the Beattie Quarry in [[Branford, Connecticut]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Branford's History Is Set in Stone |url=https://connecticuthistory.org/branfords-history-is-set-in-stone/ |publisher=Connecticut Humanities |access-date=July 3, 2013 |archive-date=November 29, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131129175802/https://connecticuthistory.org/branfords-history-is-set-in-stone/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The concrete mass was the largest poured to that time.{{sfn|Moreno|2000|pp=184–186}}

[[Norwegians|Norwegian]] immigrant [[Civil engineering|civil engineer]] [[Joachim Goschen Giæver]] designed the structural framework for the Statue of Liberty. His work involved design computations, detailed fabrication and construction drawings, and oversight of construction. In completing his engineering for the statue's frame, Giæver worked from drawings and sketches produced by Gustave Eiffel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.structuremag.org/article.aspx?articleID=1484|title=STRUCTUREmag – Structural Engineering Magazine, Tradeshow: Joachim Gotsche Giaver|date=November 27, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127045537/https://www.structuremag.org/article.aspx?articleID=1484|archive-date=November 27, 2012}}</ref>

====Fundraising====
Fundraising in the U.S. for the pedestal had begun in 1882. The committee organized a large number of money-raising events.{{sfn|Khan|2010|pp=163–164}} As part of one such effort, an auction of art and manuscripts, poet [[Emma Lazarus]] was asked to donate an original work. She initially declined, stating she could not write a poem about a statue. At the time, she was also involved in aiding refugees to New York who had fled [[Pogroms in the Russian Empire#1881–1884|antisemitic pogroms in eastern Europe]]. These refugees were forced to live in conditions that the wealthy Lazarus had never experienced. She saw a way to express her empathy for these refugees in terms of the statue.{{sfn|Khan|2010|pp=165–166}} The resulting [[sonnet]], "[[The New Colossus]]", including the lines "Give me your tired, your poor/Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free", is uniquely identified with the Statue of Liberty in American culture and is inscribed on a plaque in its museum.{{sfn|Moreno|2000|pp=172–175}} Lazarus's poem contrasted the classical Colossus of Rhodes as a frightening symbol, with the new "American colossus" as a "beacon to the lost and hopeless".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bruinius |first=Harry |date=May 16, 2019 |title=What Does Lady Liberty Stand for? A Look at Changing Attitudes. |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2019/0516/What-does-Lady-Liberty-stand-for-A-look-at-changing-attitudes |access-date= |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |issn=0882-7729}}</ref>
[[File:PulitzerGlass.jpg|thumb|''Liberty Enlightening the World, or The Statue of Liberty'', a stained glass window commissioned by [[Joseph Pulitzer]] to commemorate fundraising for the pedestal. Originally installed in the [[New York World Building]], it is currently located in Pulitzer Hall at [[Columbia University]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 23, 2023 |title=A World Room Welcome |url=https://blogs.cul.columbia.edu/rbml/2023/01/23/a-world-room-welcome/ |access-date=January 25, 2023 |website=blogs.cul.columbia.edu}}</ref>]]
Even with these efforts, fundraising lagged. [[Grover Cleveland]], the [[governor of New York]], vetoed a bill to provide $50,000 for the statue project in 1884. An attempt the next year to have Congress provide $100,000, sufficient to complete the project, also failed. The New York committee, with only $3,000 in the bank, suspended work on the pedestal. With the project in jeopardy, groups from other American cities, including Boston and Philadelphia, offered to pay the full cost of erecting the statue in return for relocating it.<ref name=Levine/>

[[Joseph Pulitzer]], publisher of the ''[[New York World]]'', a New York newspaper, announced a drive to raise $100,000 ({{inflation|US|100000|1885|r=-3|fmt=eq}}). Pulitzer pledged to print the name of every contributor, no matter how small the amount given.{{sfn|Bell|Abrams|1984|pp=40–41}} The drive captured the imagination of New Yorkers, especially when Pulitzer began publishing the notes he received from contributors. "A young girl alone in the world" donated "60&nbsp;cents, the result of self denial."{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=105}} One donor gave "five cents as a poor office boy's [[Lesson of the widow's mite|mite]] toward the Pedestal Fund." A group of children sent a dollar as "the money we saved to go to the circus with."{{sfn|Sutherland|2003|p=51}} Another dollar was given by a "lonely and very aged woman."{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=105}} Residents of a home for alcoholics in New York's rival city of Brooklyn—the cities would not merge until 1898—donated $15; other drinkers helped out through donation boxes in bars and saloons.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=107}} A kindergarten class in [[Davenport, Iowa]], mailed the ''World'' a gift of $1.35.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=105}} As the donations flooded in, the committee resumed work on the pedestal.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=110–111}} France raised about $250,000 to build the statue,<ref name="Mitchell 2014 p.">{{cite book | last=Mitchell | first=Elizabeth | title=Liberty's Torch: The Great Adventure to Build the Statue of Liberty | publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press | year=2014 | isbn=978-0-8021-2257-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KioFBAAAQBAJ | page=221}}</ref> while the United States had to raise up to $300,000 to build the pedestal.<ref name="Andrews 1896 p. 133">{{cite book | last=Andrews | first=Elisha Benjamin | title=The History of the Last Quarter-century in the United States, 1870-1895 | publisher=Scribner | issue=v. 2 | year=1896 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vAlFAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA133 | page=133}}</ref><ref name="Facts on File 1927 p. 543">{{cite book | title=The World Almanac & Book of Facts | publisher=Newspaper Enterprise Association | year=1927 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JGU3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA543 | page=543}}</ref>

{{clear}}
====Construction====
On June 17, 1885, the French steamer [[Isère (ship)|''Isère'' (ship)]] arrived in New York with the crates holding the disassembled statue on board. New Yorkers displayed their newfound enthusiasm for the statue. Two hundred thousand people lined the docks and hundreds of boats put to sea to welcome the ship.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=112}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fultonhistory.com/Newspapers%206/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Telegram/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Telegram%201885%20Jun%20-%201885%20Oct%20Grayscale/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Telegram%201885%20Jun%20-%201885%20Oct%20Grayscale%20-%200140.pdf#xml=https://www.fultonhistory.com/dtSearch/dtisapi6.dll?cmd=getpdfhits&u=ffffffffc423758c&DocId=5727280&Index=Z%3a%5cIndex%20I%2dE&HitCount=4&hits=4f+179+197+198+&SearchForm=C%3a%5cinetpub%5cwwwroot%5cFulton%5fNew%5fform%2ehtml&.pdf |title=The Isere-Bartholdi Gift Reaches the Horseshoe Safely |work=The Evening Post |date=June 17, 1885 |access-date=February 11, 2013 |archive-date=January 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112020029/https://www.fultonhistory.com/Newspapers%206/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Telegram/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Telegram%201885%20Jun%20-%201885%20Oct%20Grayscale/New%20York%20NY%20Evening%20Telegram%201885%20Jun%20-%201885%20Oct%20Grayscale%20-%200140.pdf#xml=https://www.fultonhistory.com/dtSearch/dtisapi6.dll?cmd=getpdfhits&u=ffffffffc423758c&DocId=5727280&Index=Z%3a%5cIndex%20I%2dE&HitCount=4&hits=4f+179+197+198+&SearchForm=C%3a%5cinetpub%5cwwwroot%5cFulton%5fNew%5fform%2ehtml&.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> After five months' daily calls to donate to the statue fund, on August 11, 1885, the ''World'' announced that $102,000 had been raised from 120,000&nbsp;donors, and that 80 percent of the total had been received in sums of less than one dollar ({{Inflation|US|1|1885|r=0|fmt=eq}}).{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=114}}

Even with the success of the fund drive, the pedestal was not completed until April 1886. Immediately thereafter, reassembly of the statue began. Eiffel's iron framework was anchored to steel [[I-beam]]s within the concrete pedestal and assembled.{{sfn|Moreno|2000|p=19}} Once this was done, the sections of skin were carefully attached.{{sfn|Bell|Abrams|1984|p=49}} Due to the width of the pedestal, it was not possible to erect [[scaffolding]], and workers dangled from ropes while installing the skin sections.{{sfn|Moreno|2000|p=64}} Bartholdi had planned to put floodlights on the torch's balcony to illuminate it; a week before the dedication, the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|Army Corps of Engineers]] vetoed the proposal, fearing that ships' pilots passing the statue would be blinded. Instead, Bartholdi cut portholes in the torch—which was covered with [[gold leaf]]—and placed the lights inside them.{{sfn|Hayden|Despont|1986|p=36}} A power plant was installed on the island to light the torch and for other electrical needs.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=133–134}} After the skin was completed, landscape architect [[Frederick Law Olmsted]], co-designer of Manhattan's [[Central Park]] and Brooklyn's [[Prospect Park (Brooklyn)|Prospect Park]], supervised a cleanup of Bedloe's Island in anticipation of the dedication.{{sfn|Moreno|2000|p=65}} General Charles Stone claimed on the day of dedication that no man had died during the construction of the statue; this was not true, as Francis Longo, a thirty-nine-year-old Italian laborer, had been killed when an old wall fell on him.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mitchell|first=Elizabeth|title=Liberty's Torch: The Great Adventure to Build the Statue of Liberty|publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-8021-9255-4|pages=259}}</ref> When built, the statue was reddish-brown and shiny, but within twenty years it had oxidized to its current green color through reactions with air, water and acidic pollution, forming a layer of [[verdigris]] which protects the copper from further corrosion.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.zmescience.com/feature-post/natural-sciences/chemistry-articles/applied-chemistry/why-is-the-statue-of-liberty-so-green-theres-more-to-it-than-just-a-pretty-color/|title=Why is the Statue of Liberty so green? There's more to it than just a pretty color|work=ZME Science |date=December 11, 2022 |access-date=July 16, 2024}}</ref>