Editing Southeast Asia (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Southeast Asia}}

===Prehistory===
[[File:Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave painting of Bull.jpg|thumb|The depiction of a bull found in the [[Lubang Jeriji Saleh]], [[Indonesia]], in 2018, is considered among the world’s oldest known figurative paintings. The painting is estimated to have been created around 40,000 to 52,000 years ago, or even earlier.]]
[[File:Situs_Megalitikum_Gunung_Padang_Cianjur.jpg|thumb|[[Gunung Padang]], the largest megalithic site in Southeast Asia.]]

The region was already inhabited by ''[[Homo erectus]]'' from approximately 1,500,000 years ago during the [[Middle Pleistocene]] age.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=First Islanders: Prehistory and Human Migration in Island Southeast Asia|last=Bellwood|first=Peter|date=10 April 2017|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-119-25154-5|edition=1|language=en}}</ref> Distinct ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]'' groups, ancestral to Eastern non-African (related to East Asians as well as Papuans) populations, reached the region by between 50,000BC to 70,000BC, with some arguing earlier.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lipson|first1=Mark|last2=Reich|first2=David|date=April 2017|title=A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=34|issue=4|pages=889–902|doi=10.1093/molbev/msw293|issn=0737-4038|pmc=5400393|pmid=28074030}}</ref><ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{Cite journal|last1=Larena|first1=Maximilian|last2=Sanchez-Quinto|first2=Federico|last3=Sjödin|first3=Per|last4=McKenna|first4=James|last5=Ebeo|first5=Carlo|last6=Reyes|first6=Rebecca|last7=Casel|first7=Ophelia|last8=Huang|first8=Jin-Yuan|last9=Hagada|first9=Kim Pullupul|last10=Guilay|first10=Dennis|last11=Reyes|first11=Jennelyn|date=30 March 2021|title=Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=118|issue=13|pages=e2026132118|doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118|issn=0027-8424|pmc=8020671|pmid=33753512|bibcode=2021PNAS..11826132L |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Rock art]] (parietal art) dating from 40,000 to 60,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in the caves of [[Sulawesi]] and [[Borneo]] ([[Kalimantan]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aubert |first=M. |display-authors=et al. |date=11 December 2019 |title=Earliest hunting scene in prehistoric art. |journal=Nature |volume=576 |issue=7787 |pages=442–445 |bibcode=2019Natur.576..442A |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1806-y |pmid=31827284 |s2cid=209311825}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Smith|first=Kiona N.|date=9 November 2018|title=The world's oldest figurative drawing depicts a wounded animal|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2018/11/the-worlds-oldest-figurative-drawing-depicts-a-wounded-animal/|access-date=6 January 2022|website=Ars Technica|language=en-us|archive-date=9 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109201742/https://arstechnica.com/science/2018/11/the-worlds-oldest-figurative-drawing-depicts-a-wounded-animal/|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'' also lived in the area up until at least 50,000 years ago, after which they became extinct.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Morwood, M. J. | author2=Brown, P.| author3= Jatmiko| author4= Sutikna, T.| author5= Wahyu Saptomo, E.| author6= Westaway, K. E.| author7= Rokus Awe Due| author8= Roberts, R. G.| author9= Maeda, T.| author10= Wasisto, S.| author11= Djubiantono, T. | date = 13 October 2005 | title = Further evidence for small-bodied hominins from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 437 | pages = 1012–1017 | doi = 10.1038/nature04022 | pmid=16229067 | issue=7061| bibcode=2005Natur.437.1012M| s2cid=4302539}}</ref> During much of this time the present-day islands of [[Western Indonesia]] were joined into a single landmass with the [[Malay Peninsula]] known as [[Sundaland]] due to much lower sea levels. The [[Gulf of Thailand]] was dry land which connected Sundaland with [[Mainland Southeast Asia]].

Ancient remains of hunter-gatherers in Maritime Southeast Asia, such as one Holocene hunter-gatherer from [[South Sulawesi]], had ancestry from both the Papuan-related and East Asian-related branches of the Eastern non-African lineage. The hunter-gatherer individual had approximately ~50% "Basal-East Asian" ancestry, and was positioned in between modern East Asians and Papuans of Oceania. The authors concluded that East Asian-related ancestry expanded from Mainland Southeast Asia into Maritime Southeast Asia much earlier than previously suggested, as early as 25,000BC, long before the expansion of [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carlhoff|first1=Selina|last2=Duli|first2=Akin|last3=Nägele|first3=Kathrin|last4=Nur|first4=Muhammad|last5=Skov|first5=Laurits|last6=Sumantri|first6=Iwan|last7=Oktaviana|first7=Adhi Agus|last8=Hakim|first8=Budianto|last9=Burhan|first9=Basran|last10=Syahdar|first10=Fardi Ali|last11=McGahan|first11=David P.|date=August 2021|title=Genome of a middle Holocene hunter-gatherer from Wallacea|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=596|issue=7873|pages=543–547|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03823-6|issn=1476-4687|pmid=34433944|pmc=8387238|bibcode=2021Natur.596..543C|quote=The [[qpGraph]] analysis confirmed this branching pattern, with the Leang Panninge individual branching off from the Near Oceanian clade after the Denisovan gene flow, although with the most supported topology indicating around 50% of a basal East Asian component contributing to the Leang Panninge genome (Fig. 3c, Supplementary Figs. 7–11).|hdl-access=free|hdl=10072/407535}}</ref>

Distinctive [[East Asian people|Basal-East Asian]] (East-Eurasian) ancestry was recently found to have originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000BC, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Geneflow of East Asian-related ancestry into [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]] could be estimated to ~25,000BC (possibly also earlier). The pre-Neolithic Papuan-related populations of Maritime Southeast Asia were largely replaced by the expansion of various East Asian-related populations, beginning about 50,000BC to 25,000BC years ago from Mainland Southeast Asia. The remainders, known as Negritos, form small minority groups in geographically isolated regions. Southeast Asia was dominated by East Asian-related ancestry already in 15,000BC, predating the expansion of [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Austronesian peoples]].<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/>
[[File:The proposed route of Austroasiatic and Austronesian migration into Indonesia and the geographic distribution of sites that have produced red-slipped and cord-marked pottery.png|left|thumb|The [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Austronesian expansion]]s into Maritime Southeast Asia.]]
In the late [[Neolithic]], the [[Austronesian people]]s, who form the majority of the modern population in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Timor-Leste, migrated to Southeast Asia from [[Taiwan]] in the first seaborne human migration known as the [[Austronesian expansion|Austronesian Expansion]]. They arrived in the northern Philippines between 7,000 BC to 2,200 BC and rapidly spread further into the [[Northern Mariana Islands]] and [[Borneo]] by 1500 BC; [[Island Melanesia]] by 1300 BC; and to the rest of [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], southern [[Vietnam]], and [[Palau]] by 1000 BC.<ref name="Bellwood 1991">{{cite journal |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |title=The Austronesian Dispersal and the Origin of Languages |journal=Scientific American |date=1991 |volume=265 |issue=1 |pages=88–93 |jstor=24936983|bibcode=1991SciAm.265a..88B |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0791-88 }}</ref><ref name="hill&serjeanston1989">{{cite book|title=The Colonization of the Pacific: A Genetic Trail|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1989|isbn=978-0-19-857695-2|editor=Hill|editor-first=Adrian V.S.|series=Research Monographs on Human Population Biology No. 7|editor2=Serjeantson|editor-first2=Susan W.|editor-link2=Susan Serjeantson}}</ref> They often settled along coastal areas, replacing and assimilating the diverse preexisting peoples.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |url-access=registration |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003 |location= New Haven and London |isbn=978-0-300-10518-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/5 5–7]}}</ref><ref name="Matsumura2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Matsumura H, Shinoda KI, Shimanjuntak T, Oktaviana AA, Noerwidi S, Octavianus Sofian H, Prastiningtyas D, Nguyen LC, Kakuda T, Kanzawa-Kiriyama H, Adachi N, Hung HC, Fan X, Wu X, Willis A, Oxenham MF | display-authors = 6 | title = Cranio-morphometric and aDNA corroboration of the Austronesian dispersal model in ancient Island Southeast Asia: Support from Gua Harimau, Indonesia | journal = PLOS ONE| volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = e0198689 | date = 22 June 2018 | pmid = 29933384 | pmc = 6014653 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0198689 | bibcode = 2018PLoSO..1398689M | s2cid = 49377747 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/>

The [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] peoples of Southeast Asia have been [[sailor|seafarers]] for thousands of years. They spread eastwards to [[Micronesia]] and [[Polynesia]], as well as westwards to [[Madagascar]], becoming the ancestors of modern-day [[Malagasy peoples|Malagasy]], [[Micronesian people|Micronesians]], [[Melanesians]], and [[Polynesians]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500|last=Hall|first=Kenneth R.|date=16 January 2011|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-0-7425-6761-0|location=Lanham|language=en}}</ref> Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar, as well as commerce between Western Asia, eastern coast of India and Chinese southern coast.<ref name=":22" /> Gold from [[Sumatra]] is thought to have reached as far west as Rome. [[Pliny the Elder]] wrote in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' about [[Chryse and Argyre]], two legendary islands rich in gold and silver, located in the Indian Ocean. Their vessels, such as the [[vinta]], were capable to sail across the ocean. [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]]'s voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships.<ref name="Bergreen.L_Magellan">Laurence Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe, HarperCollins Publishers, 2003, hardcover 480 pages, {{ISBN|978-0-06-621173-2}}</ref> A [[Enrique of Malacca|slave]] from the [[Sulu Sea]] was believed to have been used in the [[Magellan expedition]] as a translator.

Studies presented by the [[Human Genome Organisation]] (HUGO) through genetic studies of the various peoples of Asia show empirically that there was a single migration event from Africa, whereby the early people travelled along the south coast of Asia, first entered the Malay Peninsula 50,000–90,000 years ago. The Orang Asli, in particular the [[Semang]] who show Negrito characteristics, are the direct descendants of these earliest settlers of Southeast Asia. These early people diversified and travelled slowly northwards to China, and the populations of Southeast Asia show greater genetic diversity than the younger population of China.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8406506.stm | work=BBC News | title=Genetic 'map' of Asia's diversity | date=11 December 2009 | access-date=5 November 2010 | archive-date=29 January 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120129232943/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8406506.stm | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/187435|title=Geneticist clarifies role of Proto-Malays in human origin|date=25 January 2012|work=Malaysiakini|access-date=27 August 2017|language=en|archive-date=27 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727181033/https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/187435|url-status=live}}</ref>

Solheim and others have shown evidence for a ''Nusantao'' maritime trading network ranging from [[Vietnam]] to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD.<ref>Solheim, ''Journal of East Asian Archaeology'', 2000, '''2''':1–2, pp. 273–284(12)</ref> The [[Bronze Age]] [[Dong Son culture]] flourished in [[Northern Vietnam]] from about 1000 BC to 1 BC. Its influence spread to other parts Southeast Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.littlevietnamtours.com.vn/about_vietnam/vietnam_culture/dong_son_culture.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130426081801/http://www.littlevietnamtours.com.vn/about_vietnam/vietnam_culture/dong_son_culture.php |url-status=dead |title=Vietnam Tours|archive-date=26 April 2013}}</ref><ref>Nola Cooke, Tana Li, James Anderson – The Tongking Gulf Through History – Page 46 2011 -"Nishimura actually suggested the Đông Sơn phase belonged in the late metal age, and some other Japanese scholars argued that, contrary to the conventional belief that the Han invasion ended Đông Sơn culture, Đông Sơn artifacts, ..."</ref><ref>Vietnam Fine Arts Museum 2000 "... the bronze cylindrical jars, drums, Weapons and tools which were sophistically carved and belonged to the World-famous Đông Sơn culture dating from thousands of years; the Sculptures in the round, the ornamental architectural Sculptures ..."</ref> The region entered the [[Iron Age]] era in 500 BC, when iron was forged also in northern Vietnam still under Dong Son, due to its frequent interactions with neighbouring China.<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Vietnam, tamburo di song da, detto tamburo Moulié, cultura di Sông Dông Son II, I millennio ac. 01.JPG|thumb|Bronze drum from [[Sông Đà (Mường Lay)|Sông Đà]], northern Vietnam. Mid-1st millennium BC]]

Most Southeast Asian people were originally [[animism|animist]], engaged in ancestors, nature, and spirits worship. These belief systems were later supplanted by [[Hinduism]] and Buddhism after the region, especially coastal areas, came under contact with [[Indian subcontinent]] during the first century.<ref name="jgonda">[[Jan Gonda]], The Indian Religions in Pre-Islamic Indonesia and their survival in Bali, in {{Google books|X7YfAAAAIAAJ|Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions|page=1}}, pp. 1–54</ref> Indian Brahmins and traders brought Hinduism to the region and made contacts with local courts.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA587|title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor|last=Ooi|first=Keat Gin|date=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-770-2|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614174028/https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA587|url-status=live}}</ref> Local rulers converted to Hinduism or Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow chief counterparts and facilitate trade with South Asian states. They periodically invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and began a gradual process of [[Indianized kingdom|Indianisation]] in the region.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC|title=A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500|last=Hall|first=Kenneth R.|date=2010|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-0-7425-6762-7|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=1 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201044039/https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Vanaik 1997">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYtKhu6rktAC&pg=PA147|title=The Furies of Indian Communalism: Religion, Modernity, and Secularization|last=Vanaik|first=Achin|date=1997|publisher=Verso|isbn=978-1-85984-016-0|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729203937/https://books.google.com/books?id=WYtKhu6rktAC&pg=PA147|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Montgomery 2002">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RkeOLTrPDI0C&pg=PA68|title=The Lopsided Spread of Christianity: Toward an Understanding of the Diffusion of Religions|last=Montgomery|first=Robert L.|date=2002|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-97361-2|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729203801/https://books.google.com/books?id=RkeOLTrPDI0C&pg=PA68|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Shaivism]] was the dominant religious tradition of many southern Indian Hindu kingdoms during the first century. It then spread into Southeast Asia via the [[Bay of Bengal]], Indochina, then Malay Archipelago, leading to thousands of Shiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with [[Buddhism]] in the region.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7YfAAAAIAAJ|title=Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions|author=Jan Gonda|publisher=BRILL Academic|year=1975|isbn=978-90-04-04330-5|pages=3–20, 35–36, 49–51|author-link=Jan Gonda|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=5 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205085012/https://books.google.com/books?id=X7YfAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="bisschopoup2">{{cite web|title=Shaivism|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0051.xml|access-date=6 January 2022|website=obo|language=en|archive-date=2 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102174639/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0051.xml|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Theravada Buddhism]] entered the region during the third century, via maritime trade routes between the region and [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2-TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|title=Archaeology of Religion: Cultures and Their Beliefs in Worldwide Context|last=Steadman|first=Sharon R.|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-43388-2|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731153605/https://books.google.com/books?id=S2-TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|url-status=live}}</ref> Buddhism later established a strong presence in [[Funan]] region in the fifth century. In present-day mainland Southeast Asia, Theravada is still the dominant branch of Buddhism, practised by the Thai, Burmese, and Cambodian Buddhists. This branch was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture. [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]] established presence in Maritime Southeast Asia, brought by Chinese monks during their transit in the region en route to [[Nalanda]].<ref name=":3" /> It is still the dominant branch of Buddhism practised by Indonesian and Malaysian Buddhists.

The spread of these two Indian religions confined the adherents of Southeast Asian indigenous beliefs into remote inland areas. The [[Maluku Islands]] and New Guinea were never Indianised and its native people were predominantly animists until the 15th century when [[Islam]] began to spread in those areas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Timme|first=Elke|title=A Presença Portuguesa nas Ilhas das Moluccas 1511 – 1605|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QMCpUCxFrUC&pg=PA3|year=2005|publisher=GRIN Verlag|isbn=978-3-638-43208-5|page=3|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729203037/https://books.google.com/books?id=2QMCpUCxFrUC&pg=PA3|url-status=live}}</ref> While in Vietnam, Buddhism never managed to develop strong institutional networks due to strong Chinese influence.<ref>{{cite book|last=Church|first=Peter|title=A Short History of South-East Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FW8wDgAAQBAJ|year=2017|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-119-06249-3|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729213629/https://books.google.com/books?id=FW8wDgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> In present-day Southeast Asia, Vietnam is the only country where [[Vietnamese folk religion|its folk religion]] makes up the plurality.<ref>{{cite web|date=18 December 2012|title=The Global Religious Landscape|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|access-date=6 January 2022|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|language=en-US|archive-date=19 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719060225/http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-percentage.php|title=Global Religious Landscape|publisher=The Pew Forum|access-date=4 May 2014|archive-date=1 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101080244/http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-percentage.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> Recently, Vietnamese folk religion is undergoing a revival with the support of the government.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roszko|first=Edyta|date=1 March 2012|title=From Spiritual Homes to National Shrines: Religious Traditions and Nation-Building in Vietnam|journal=East Asia|language=en|volume=29|issue=1|pages=25–41|doi=10.1007/s12140-011-9156-x|issn=1096-6838|citeseerx=10.1.1.467.6835|s2cid=52084986}}</ref> Elsewhere, there are [[ethnic groups in Southeast Asia]] that resisted conversion and still retain their original animist beliefs, such as the [[Dayak people|Dayaks]] in [[Kalimantan]], the [[Igorot people|Igorots]] in Luzon, and the [[Shan people|Shans]] in eastern Myanmar.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ancient Religions of the Austronesian World: From Australasia to Taiwan|last=Baldick|first=Julian|date=15 June 2013|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-78076-366-8|location=London|language=en}}</ref>

=== Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms era ===
{{Main|Greater India|History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia}}
[[File:Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia_2023.svg|thumb|Hinduism expansion in Asia, from its heartland in Indian Subcontinent, to the rest of Asia, especially Southeast Asia, started circa 1st century marked with the establishment of early Hindu settlements and polities in Southeast Asia.]]
After the region came under contact with the Indian subcontinent {{circa|400 BCE}}, it began a gradual process of [[Greater India|Indianisation]] where Indian ideas such as religions, cultures, architectures, and political administrations were brought by traders and religious figures and adopted by local rulers. In turn, Indian Brahmins and monks were invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help transforming local polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and indigenous traditions.<ref name=":32">{{cite book |last=Hall |first=Kenneth R. |title=A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC |year=2010 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-0-7425-6762-7 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201044039/https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Vanaik 1997"/><ref name="Montgomery 2002"/> [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]] became the elite language of the region, which effectively made Southeast Asia part of the [[Indosphere]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mahbubani|first1=Kishore|last2=Sng|first2=Jeffery|title=The ASEAN Miracle: A Catalyst for Peace|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IanWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA19|year=2017|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-981-4722-49-0|page=19|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731130306/https://books.google.com/books?id=IanWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA19|url-status=live}}</ref> Most of the region had been Indianised during the first centuries, while the Philippines later Indianised {{circa|ninth century}} when [[Kingdom of Tondo]] was established in Luzon.<ref name="Postma">{{cite journal|last=Postma|first=Antoon|date=27 June 2008|title=The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary|url=http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018|journal=Philippine Studies|volume=40|issue=2|pages=182–203|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010144524/http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018|url-status=live}}</ref> Vietnam, especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the many periods of [[Vietnam under Chinese rule|Chinese domination]] it experienced.<ref>Viet Nam social sciences 2002 Page 42 Ủy ban khoa học xã hội Việt Nam – 2002 "The first period of cultural disruption and transformation: in and around the first millennium CE (that is, the period of Bac thuoc) all of Southeast Asia shifted into strong cultural exchanges with the outside world, on the one hand with Chinese ..."</ref>

The first Indian-influenced polities established in the region were the [[Pyu city-states]] that already existed circa second century BCE, located in inland Myanmar. It served as an overland trading hub between India and China.<ref>{{cite book|last=Malik|first=Preet|title=My Myanmar Years: A Diplomat's Account of India's Relations with the Region|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M7WqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT28|year=2015|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-93-5150-626-3|page=28|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729230331/https://books.google.com/books?id=M7WqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT28|url-status=live}}</ref> Theravada Buddhism was the predominant religion of these city states, while the presence of other Indian religions such as Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were also widespread.<ref name="mat-31-34">Aung-Thwin 2005: 31–34</ref><ref name="mha-15-17">Htin Aung 1967: 15–17</ref> In the first century, the [[Funan]] states centered in [[Mekong Delta]] were established, encompassed modern-day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern Thailand. It became the dominant trading power in mainland Southeast Asia for about five centuries, provided passage for Indian and Chinese goods and assumed authority over the flow of commerce through Southeast Asia.<ref name=":22"/> In maritime Southeast Asia, the first recorded Indianised kingdom was [[Salakanagara]], established in western Java circa second century CE. This Hindu kingdom was known by the Greeks as ''Argyre'' (Land of Silver).<ref>{{cite book|last=Iguchi|first=Masatoshi|title=Java Essay: The History and Culture of a Southern Country|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rFvsBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA116|year=2017|publisher=Troubador Publishing Ltd|isbn=978-1-78462-885-7|page=116|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731145852/https://books.google.com/books?id=rFvsBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA116|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Borobudur, Java, Indonesia, 20220817 1028 8800.jpg|thumb|[[Borobudur]] temple in [[Central Java]], Indonesia]]
By the fifth century CE, trade networking between East and West was concentrated in the maritime route. Foreign traders were starting to use new routes such as [[Strait of Malacca|Malacca]] and [[Sunda Strait]] due to the development of maritime Southeast Asia. This change resulted in the decline of Funan, while new maritime powers such as [[Srivijaya]], [[Tarumanagara]], and [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]] emerged. Srivijaya especially became the dominant maritime power for more than 5 centuries, controlling both [[Strait of Malacca]] and [[Sunda Strait]].<ref name=":22" /> This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya were [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|invaded by Chola Empire]], a dominant maritime power of Indian subcontinent, in 1025.<ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342">[[R. C. Majumdar]] (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338–342, Artibus Asiae Publishers</ref> The invasion reshaped power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as the [[Khmer Empire]] and [[Kahuripan]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Rila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xeqhnYtrKcC&pg=PA76 |title=Pelagic Passageways: The Northern Bay of Bengal Before Colonialism |publisher=Primus Books |year=2011 |isbn=978-93-80607-20-7 |page=76 |author-link=Rila Mukherjee |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729231954/https://books.google.com/books?id=7xeqhnYtrKcC&pg=PA76 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Continued commercial contacts with the [[Mid-Imperial China|Chinese Empire]] enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Hindu cultural influence]] found today throughout Southeast Asia are the result of the Chola expeditions.{{NoteTag|The great temple complex at [[Prambanan]] in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with the South Indian architecture.<ref>Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. ''The CōĻas'', 1935, p.&nbsp;709.</ref>}}
[[File:Angkor Wat reflejado en un estanque 08.jpg|left|thumb|[[Angkor Wat]] in [[Siem Reap]], [[Cambodia]]]]
As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Hindu Khmer Empire experienced a golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire's capital [[Angkor]] hosts majestic monuments—such as [[Angkor Wat]] and [[Bayon]]. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world.<ref name="Evans2007">{{cite journal |first1 = Damian |last1 = Evans |display-authors=etal |date=9 April 2009 |title=A comprehensive archaeological map of the world's largest preindustrial settlement complex at Angkor, Cambodia |journal=PNAS|volume=104|issue=36|pages=14277–82|doi=10.1073/pnas.0702525104|pmc=1964867|pmid=17717084|bibcode=2007PNAS..10414277E |doi-access = free }}</ref> The [[Champa]] civilisation was located in what is today central Vietnam, and was a highly Indianised Hindu Kingdom. The [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] launched a massive conquest against the [[Cham (Asia)|Cham people]] during the [[1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa]], ransacking and burning Champa, slaughtering thousands of Cham people, and forcibly assimilating them into Vietnamese culture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kiernan|first=Ben|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur |url = https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326 |url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-13793-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/110 110]}}</ref>
[[File:Bayon Angkor Relief1.jpg|thumb|[[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] army [[Khmer–Cham wars|waging war]] with [[war elephant]]s against the [[Champa|Cham]] in the 12th century, stone relief at the [[Bayon]]]]
During the 13th century CE, the region experienced [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol invasions]], affected areas such as Vietnamese coast, inland Burma and [[Java]]. In 1258, 1285 and 1287, the Mongols tried to invade [[Đại Việt]] and [[Champa]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A history of Vietnam: from Hong Bang to Tu Duc|last=Chapuis|first=Oscar|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-313-29622-2|page=85}}</ref> The invasions were unsuccessful, yet both Dai Viet and Champa agreed to become tributary states to [[Yuan dynasty]] to avoid further conflicts.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bulliet|first1=Richard|last2=Crossley|first2=Pamela|last3=Headrick|first3=Daniel|last4=Hirsch|first4=Steven|last5=Johnson|first5=Lyman|title=The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h8CiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA336|year=2014|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-285-96570-3|page=336|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731142610/https://books.google.com/books?id=h8CiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA336|url-status=live}}</ref> The Mongols also invaded [[Pagan Kingdom]] in Burma from 1277 to 1287, resulted in fragmentation of the Kingdom and rise of smaller [[Shan States]] ruled by local chieftains nominally submitted to Yuan dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/gazetteerupperb01hardgoog|title=Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States|last=Hardiman|first=John Percy|date=1900|publisher=superintendent, Government printing, Burma|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bernice Koehler Johnson|title=The Shan: Refugees Without a Camp, an English Teacher in Thailand and Burma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mLDRmhtWouQC&pg=PA11|year=2009|publisher=Trinity Matrix Publishing|isbn=978-0-9817833-0-7|page=11|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729195828/https://books.google.com/books?id=mLDRmhtWouQC&pg=PA11|url-status=live}}</ref> However, in 1297, a new local power emerged. [[Myinsaing Kingdom]] became the real ruler of Central Burma and challenged the Mongol rule. This resulted in the second Mongol invasion of Burma in 1300, which was repulsed by Myinsaing.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kohn|first=George Childs|title=Dictionary of Wars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1TLjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT446|year=2013|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-95501-4|page=446|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729192630/https://books.google.com/books?id=1TLjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT446|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Whiting |first=Marvin C. |title=Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000 BC-1912 AD |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JJQiAz3qTCgC&pg=PA408 |year=2002 |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-0-595-22134-9 |page=408 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729192217/https://books.google.com/books?id=JJQiAz3qTCgC&pg=PA408 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Mongols would later in 1303 withdrawn from Burma.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hardiman |first=John Percy |url=https://archive.org/details/gazetteerupperb01hardgoog |title=Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States |publisher=superintendent, Government printing, Burma |year=1900}}</ref> In 1292, The Mongols sent envoys to [[Singhasari]] Kingdom in Java to ask for submission to Mongol rule. Singhasari rejected the proposal and injured the envoys, enraged the Mongols and made them sent a large invasion fleet to Java. Unbeknownst to them, Singhasari collapsed in 1293 due to a revolt by [[Kediri (historical kingdom)|Kadiri]], one of its vassals. When the Mongols arrived in Java, a local prince named [[Raden Wijaya]] offered his service to assist the Mongols in punishing Kadiri. After Kadiri was defeated, Wijaya turned on his Mongol allies, ambushed their invasion fleet and forced them to immediately leave Java.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yjNWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT60 |title=Southeast Asia: Past and Present |last=SarDesai |first=D. R. |year=2012 |publisher=Avalon Publishing |isbn=978-0-8133-4838-4 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729194508/https://books.google.com/books?id=yjNWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT60 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=74seAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 |title=History of Asia |last=Rao |first=B. V. |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-81-207-9223-4 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=31 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731153416/https://books.google.com/books?id=74seAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After the departure of the Mongols, Wijaya established the [[Majapahit Empire]] in eastern Java in 1293. Majapahit would soon grow into a regional power. Its greatest ruler was [[Hayam Wuruk]], whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire's peak when other kingdoms in the southern [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Borneo]], [[Sumatra]], and [[Bali]] came under its influence. Various sources such as the Nagarakertagama also mention that its influence spanned over parts of [[Sulawesi]], [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]], and some areas of [[western New Guinea]] and southern [[Philippines]], making it one of the largest empire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history.<ref name="miksic2">{{cite book|author1-link=John N. Miksic |title = Ancient History |series = Indonesian Heritage Series |volume = 1 |first = John |last = Miksic |publisher = Archipelago Press / Editions Didier Millet |year=1999 |isbn=978-981-3018-26-6 }}</ref>{{rp|page=107}} By the 15th century CE however, Majapahit's influence began to wane due to many war of successions it experienced and the rise of new Islamic states such as [[Samudera Pasai Sultanate|Samudera Pasai]] and [[Malacca Sultanate]] around the strategic [[Strait of Malacca]]. Majapahit then collapsed around 1500. It was the last major Hindu kingdom and the last regional power in the region before the arrival of the Europeans.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jtpkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA197|title=The Private Sector's Role in Poverty Reduction in Asia|last=Hipsher|first=Scott|year=2013|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-85709-449-0|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729203939/https://books.google.com/books?id=jtpkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA197|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC&pg=PA28 |title=Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam and Muslims in Southeast Asia |last=Federspiel |first=Howard M. |year=2007 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-3052-6 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729203803/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC&pg=PA28 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Spread of Islam===
{{Main|Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia|Islam in Southeast Asia}}

[[File:Masjid Tua Wapauwe Kaitetu.jpg|thumb|left|[[Wapauwe Old Mosque]] is the oldest surviving mosque in Indonesia, and the second oldest in Southeast Asia, built in 1414]]

[[Islam]] began to make contacts with Southeast Asia in the eighth-century CE, when the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]] established trade with the region via sea routes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EDABDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT113|title=Who Was Muhammad?: An Analysis of the Prophet of Islam in Light of the Bible and the Quran|last=Hardt|first=Doug|date=2016|publisher=TEACH Services, Inc.|isbn=978-1-4796-0544-6|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729203137/https://books.google.com/books?id=EDABDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT113|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ok5zuaeBtJcC&pg=PA73|title=Daily Life Through Trade: Buying and Selling in World History|last=Anderson|first=James|date=21 March 2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-36325-2|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729202946/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ok5zuaeBtJcC&pg=PA73|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YjrAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT58|title=Islam: Faith and History|last=Ayoub|first=Mahmoud|date=2013|publisher=Oneworld Publications|isbn=978-1-78074-452-0|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729203412/https://books.google.com/books?id=0YjrAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT58|url-status=live}}</ref> However its spread into the region happened centuries later. In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of [[Maritime Southeast Asia]]. The Indian [[Chola]] navy crossed the ocean and attacked the [[Srivijaya]] kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram ([[Kedah Kingdom|Kedah]]); the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present-day [[Sumatra]] and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional [[Hindu]] faith, and converted to Islam with the [[Sultanate of Kedah]] established in 1136. [[Samudera Pasai]] converted to Islam in 1267, the King of Malacca [[Parameswara (sultan)|Parameswara]] married the princess of Pasai, and the son became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon, Malacca became the center of Islamic study and maritime trade, and other rulers followed suit. [[Indonesia]]n religious leader and Islamic scholar [[Hamka]] (1908–1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia and [[Federation of Malaya|Malaya]] is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral [[Zheng He]]."<ref>{{cite book|last=Wang Ma|first=Rosey|title=Chinese Muslims in Malaysia: History and Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jK8ltwAACAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Center for Asia-Pacific Area Studies, Academia Sinica|access-date=1 April 2015|archive-date=4 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904021807/https://books.google.com/books?id=jK8ltwAACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

There are several theories to the [[Islamization]] process in Southeast Asia. Another theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India, and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders from South Arabia ([[Hadhramaut]]) brought Islam to the region with their large volume of trade. Many settled in Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia. This is evident in the Arab-Indonesian, Arab-Singaporean, and Arab-Malay populations who were at one time very prominent in each of their countries. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam and that further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region's most important port, [[Malacca Sultanate]], embraced Islam in the 15th century, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout the region as Islam provided a positive force among the ruling and trading classes. [[Gujarati Muslims]] played a pivotal role in establishing Islam in Southeast Asia.<ref name=toi>{{cite news|title=Gujarat helped establish Islam in SE Asia|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/ampnbspGujarat-helped-establish-Islam-in-SE-Asia/articleshow/11262585.cms|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|last=Prabhune|first=Tushar|location=[[Ahmedabad]]|date=27 December 2011|access-date=15 May 2018|archive-date=3 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203230825/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/ampnbspGujarat-helped-establish-Islam-in-SE-Asia/articleshow/11262585.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Trade and colonization===
[[File:StraitOfMalacca2.jpg|thumb|[[Strait of Malacca]]]]

Trade among Southeast Asian countries has a long tradition. The consequences of colonial rule, struggle for independence, and in some cases war influenced the economic attitudes and policies of each country.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=282|isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref>

====Chinese====
{{See also|List of tributaries of Imperial China|Bamboo network|Chinese Empire}}

From 111 BC to 938 AD, northern Vietnam was under Chinese rule. Vietnam was successfully governed by a series of Chinese dynasties including the [[Han dynasty|Han]], [[Eastern Han]], [[Eastern Wu]], [[Cao Wei]]<!-- After Cao Wei annexe Shu Han, Lu Xing 呂興 kill prefect and surrender Jiaozhi to Cao Wei -->, [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin]], [[Liu Song]], [[Southern Qi]], [[Liang dynasty|Liang]], [[Sui dynasty|Sui]], [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], and [[Southern Han]].
Records from Magellan's voyage show that [[Brunei]] possessed more [[cannon]] than European ships, so the Chinese must have been trading with them.<ref name="Bergreen.L_Magellan" />

Malaysian legend has it that a Chinese Ming emperor sent a princess, [[Hang Li Po]], to Malacca, with a retinue of 500, to marry [[Mansur Shah of Malacca|Sultan Mansur Shah]] after the emperor was impressed by the wisdom of the sultan. [[Hang Li Poh's Well]] (constructed 1459) is now a tourist attraction there, as is [[Bukit Cina]], where her retinue settled.

The strategic value of the [[Strait of Malacca]], which was controlled by [[Sultanate of Malacca]] in the 15th and early 16th century, did not go unnoticed by Portuguese writer [[Tomé Pires]], who wrote in the ''Suma Oriental'': "Whoever is lord of Malacca has his hand on the throat of [[Venice]]."<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4QYAQAAMAAJ |title=The Suma oriental of Tomé Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, and the book of Francisco Rodrigues, rutter of a voyage in the Red Sea, nautical rules, almanack and maps, written and drawn in the East before 1515 |date=1944 |publisher=The Hakluyt Society |location=London |pages=287 |language=en |lccn=47018369 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716145456/https://books.google.com.ph/books/about/The_Suma_Oriental_of_Tome_Pires.html?id=H4QYAQAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y |archive-date=16 July 2024 |access-date=16 July 2024 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> (Venice was a major European trading partner, and goods were transported there via the Straight.)

====European====
{{See also|European colonisation of Southeast Asia}}

[[File:Fort Cornwallis Eck.JPG|thumb|[[Fort Cornwallis]] in [[George Town, Penang|George Town]] marks the spot where the [[East India Company|British East India Company]] first landed in [[Penang]] in 1786, thus heralding the [[British Empire|British colonisation]] of [[British Malaya|Malaya]]]]

Western influence started to enter in the 16th century, with the arrival of the Portuguese in Malacca, [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]], and the Philippines, the latter being settled by the Spaniards years later, which they used to [[Manila Galleons|trade between Asia and Latin America]]. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch established the [[Dutch East Indies]]; the [[French Indochina]]; and the British [[Straits Settlements|Strait Settlements]]. By the 19th century, all Southeast Asian countries were colonised except for [[Thailand]].

[[File:Kopparmynt, 1646-1667. 2 kas, 2 doit. Holländska Indien - Skoklosters slott - 108653.tif|thumb|upright|[[Duit]], a coin minted by the [[Dutch East India Company|VOC]], 1646–1667. 2 kas, 2 duit]]

[[Chronology of European exploration of Asia|European explorers]] were reaching Southeast Asia from the west and from the east. Regular trade between the ships sailing east from the Indian Ocean and south from mainland Asia provided goods in return for natural products, such as [[honey]] and [[hornbill]] beaks from the islands of the archipelago. Before the 18th and 19th centuries, the Europeans mostly were interested in expanding trade links. For the majority of the populations in each country, there was comparatively little interaction with Europeans and traditional social routines and relationships continued. For most, a life with subsistence-level agriculture, fishing and, in less developed civilisations, hunting and gathering was still hard.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=286|isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref>

Europeans brought [[Christianity]] allowing Christian missionaries to become widespread. Thailand also allowed Western scientists to enter its country to develop its own education system as well as start sending royal members and Thai scholars to get higher education from Europe and Russia.

====Japanese====
{{See also|Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere|Empire of Japan|Japanese war crimes}}

During World War II, [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]] invaded most of the former western colonies under the concept of "[[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]]". However, the [[Shōwa period|Shōwa occupation regime]] committed violent actions against civilians such as live human experimentation,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.esquiremag.ph/long-reads/features/vivisection-japan-philippines-a00304-20200723-lfrm|title=The Cruel Vivisections Japanese Performed on Filipinos in WWII}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2006/11/27/national/vivisection-on-filipinos-admitted/ | title=Vivisection on Filipinos admitted | date=27 November 2006 | access-date=15 April 2023 | archive-date=2 June 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200602072725/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2006/11/27/national/vivisection-on-filipinos-admitted/ | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.laguardia.edu/maus/files/ethics-ch-16.pdf|title=JAPANESE BIOMEDICAL EXPERIMENTATION DURING THE WORLD-WAR-II ERA|website=laguardia.edu|first=Sheldon H.|last=Harris|author-link=Sheldon H. Harris|access-date=15 April 2023|archive-date=24 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324223814/https://www.laguardia.edu/maus/files/ethics-ch-16.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Gold, Hal (2011). Unit 731 Testimony (1st ed.). New York: Tuttle Pub. p. 97. ISBN 978-1462900824.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100210f3.html|title= - The Japan Times|website=japantimes.co.jp}} {{dead link|date=June 2023|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/correspondent/1796044.stm | title=Unit 731: Japan's biological force | date=February 2002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://apjjf.org/-Christopher-Reed/2177/article.html | title=The United States and the Japanese Mengele: Payoffs and Amnesty for Unit 731 | date=14 August 2006 }}</ref> sexual slavery under the brutal "[[comfort women]]" system,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/11/29/939811000/philippine-survivor-recounts-her-struggle-as-a-comfort-woman-for-wartime-japan|title=Philippine Survivor Recounts Her Struggle As A 'Comfort Woman' For Wartime Japan|newspaper=NPR.org|publisher=NPR|access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9IsBB-RVTlQC&dq=comfort+gay+philippines+japan&pg=PR9|title=The Other Empire: Literary Views of Japan from the Philippines, Singapore, and Malaysia|year=2008|publisher=The University of the Philippines Press|isbn=9789715425629|access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|url=https://verafiles.org/articles/mystery-missing-comfort-woman-statue|title=The mystery of the missing comfort woman statue|date=27 August 2019 |publisher=Vera Files|access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Mosbergen |first=Dominique |date=29 August 2017 |title=Harrowing Story Of Filipina Women Enslaved In Japan's Wartime Rape Camps |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/comfort-women-philippines-m-evelina-galang_us_57232d48e4b0f309baf08490 |work=Huffington Post |location=New York, New York |access-date=30 March 2018 }}<br/>{{cite news |agency=Kyodo News |date=20 November 2015 |title=Filipino 'comfort women' survivors stage rally in Manila |url=http://news.abs-cbn.com/nation/metro-manila/11/20/15/filipino-comfort-women-survivors-stage-rally-in-manila |work=ABS CBN News |access-date=30 March 2018 }}<br/>{{cite news |last=Whaley |first=Floyd |date=29 January 2016 |title=In Philippines, World War II's Lesser-Known Sex Slaves Speak Out |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/30/world/asia/japan-philippines-comfort-women-emperor-akihito.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=30 March 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://apjjf.org/2021/5/Shin.html | title=Voices of the "Comfort Women": The Power Politics Surrounding the UNESCO Documentary Heritage | date=March 2021 }}</ref> the [[Manila massacre]] and the implementation of a system of [[Unfree labour|forced labour]], such as the one involving four to ten million ''[[romusha]]'' in Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+id0029)|access-date=6 January 2022|website=lcweb2.loc.gov|title=Archived copy|archive-date=30 October 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041030225658/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+id0029%29|url-status=live}}</ref> A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dower |first1=John W. |author-link=John W. Dower |title=War Without Mercy: Race And Power In The Pacific War |date=1986 |publisher=Pantheon Books |isbn=978-0-394-75172-6 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=296 |quote=According to the U.N. Working Group for Asia and the Far East, "the total number who were killed by the Japanese, or who died from hunger, disease, and lack of medical attention is estimated at 3,000,000 for Java alone, and 1,000,000 for the Outer Islands."}}</ref> The Allied powers who then defeated Japan (and other allies of [[Axis powers|Axis]]) in the [[South-East Asian theatre of World War II]] then contended with nationalists to whom the occupation authorities had granted independence.

====Indian====
{{See also|British rule in Burma}}
[[Gujarat]], India had a flourishing trade relationship with Southeast Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries.<ref name=toi/> The trade relationship with Gujarat declined after the Portuguese invasion of Southeast Asia in the 17th century.<ref name=toi/>

====American====
{{See also|United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands|Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|Commonwealth of the Philippines}}

The United States took the Philippines from Spain in 1898. Internal autonomy was granted in 1934, and independence in 1946.<ref>H. W. Brands, ''Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines: 1890-1990'' (1992)</ref>

===Contemporary history===
Most countries in the region maintain national autonomy. [[Democracy|Democratic forms of government]] are practised in most Southeast Asian countries and human rights is recognised but dependent on each nation state. Socialist or [[Communist state|communist countries]] in Southeast Asia include Vietnam and Laos. [[ASEAN]] provides a framework for the integration of commerce and regional responses to international concerns.

China has asserted broad claims over the [[South China Sea]], based on its [[nine-dash line]], and has [[Great Wall of Sand|built artificial islands]] in an attempt to bolster its claims. China also has asserted an [[exclusive economic zone]] based on the [[Spratly Islands]]. The [[Philippines]] challenged China in the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] in [[The Hague]] in 2013, and in ''[[Philippines v. China]]'' (2016), the Court ruled in favour of the Philippines and rejected China's claims.<ref>{{cite web|last=Liow|first=Joseph Chinyong|date=12 July 2016|title=What does the South China Sea ruling mean, and what's next?|url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2016/07/12/what-does-the-south-china-sea-ruling-mean-and-whats-next/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623141104/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2016/07/12/what-does-the-south-china-sea-ruling-mean-and-whats-next/|archive-date=23 June 2018|access-date=6 January 2022|website=Brookings|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>Euan Graham, [https://www.cfr.org/councilofcouncils/global_memos/p38227 The Hague Tribunal's South China Sea Ruling: Empty Provocation or Slow-Burning Influence?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310135823/https://www.cfr.org/councilofcouncils/global_memos/p38227 |date=10 March 2018 }}, Lowy Institute for International Policy (18 August 2016).</ref>

====Indochina Wars====
{{Expand section|date=September 2024}}