Editing Sonar (section)

=== Materials and designs in the US and Japan ===
There was little progress in US sonar from 1915 to 1940. In 1940, US sonars typically consisted of a [[magnetostrictive]] transducer and an array of nickel tubes connected to a 1-foot-diameter steel plate attached back-to-back to a [[Rochelle salt]] crystal in a spherical housing. This assembly penetrated the ship hull and was manually rotated to the desired angle. The [[piezoelectric]] Rochelle salt crystal had better parameters, but the magnetostrictive unit was much more reliable. High losses to US merchant supply shipping early in World War II led to large scale high priority US research in the field, pursuing both improvements in magnetostrictive transducer parameters and Rochelle salt reliability. [[Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate]] (ADP), a superior alternative, was found as a replacement for Rochelle salt; the first application was a replacement of the 24&nbsp;kHz Rochelle-salt transducers. Within nine months, Rochelle salt was obsolete. The ADP manufacturing facility grew from few dozen personnel in early 1940 to several thousands in 1942.

One of the earliest application of ADP crystals were hydrophones for [[acoustic mine]]s; the crystals were specified for low-frequency cutoff at 5&nbsp;Hz, withstanding mechanical shock for deployment from aircraft from {{convert|10000|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip}}, and ability to survive neighbouring mine explosions. One of key features of ADP reliability is its zero aging characteristics; the crystal keeps its parameters even over prolonged storage.

Another application was for acoustic homing torpedoes. Two pairs of directional hydrophones were mounted on the torpedo nose, in the horizontal and vertical plane; the difference signals from the pairs were used to steer the torpedo left-right and up-down. A countermeasure was developed: the targeted submarine discharged an [[effervescent]] chemical, and the torpedo went after the noisier fizzy decoy. The counter-countermeasure was a torpedo with active sonar – a transducer was added to the torpedo nose, and the microphones were listening for its reflected periodic tone bursts. The transducers comprised identical rectangular crystal plates arranged to diamond-shaped areas in staggered rows.

Passive sonar arrays for submarines were developed from ADP crystals. Several crystal assemblies were arranged in a steel tube, vacuum-filled with [[castor oil]], and sealed. The tubes then were mounted in parallel arrays.

The standard US Navy scanning sonar at the end of World War II operated at 18&nbsp;kHz, using an array of ADP crystals. Desired longer range, however, required use of lower frequencies. The required dimensions were too big for ADP crystals, so in the early 1950s magnetostrictive and [[barium titanate]] piezoelectric systems were developed, but these had problems achieving uniform impedance characteristics, and the beam pattern suffered. Barium titanate was then replaced with more stable [[lead zirconate titanate]] (PZT), and the frequency was lowered to 5&nbsp;kHz. The US fleet used this material in the AN/SQS-23 sonar for several decades. The SQS-23 sonar first used magnetostrictive nickel transducers, but these weighed several tons, and nickel was expensive and considered a critical material; piezoelectric transducers were therefore substituted. The sonar was a large array of 432 individual transducers. At first, the transducers were unreliable, showing mechanical and electrical failures and deteriorating soon after installation; they were also produced by several vendors, had different designs, and their characteristics were different enough to impair the array's performance. The policy to allow repair of individual transducers was then sacrificed, and "expendable modular design", sealed non-repairable modules, was chosen instead, eliminating the problem with seals and other extraneous mechanical parts.<!-- split this off to SQS-23 article? --><ref>Frank Massa. [http://www.massa.com/wp-content/uploads/Frank_Massa-Sonar_Transducers-A_History.pdf Sonar Transducers: A History] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418081805/http://www.massa.com/wp-content/uploads/Frank_Massa-Sonar_Transducers-A_History.pdf |date=2015-04-18 }}</ref>

The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] at the onset of World War II used projectors based on [[quartz]]. These were big and heavy, especially if designed for lower frequencies; the one for Type 91 set, operating at 9&nbsp;kHz, had a diameter of {{convert|30|in}} and was driven by an oscillator with 5&nbsp;kW power and 7&nbsp;kV of output amplitude. The Type 93 projectors consisted of solid sandwiches of quartz, assembled into spherical [[cast iron]] bodies. The Type 93 sonars were later replaced with Type 3, which followed German design and used magnetostrictive projectors; the projectors consisted of two rectangular identical independent units in a cast-iron rectangular body about {{convert|16|x|9|in}}. The exposed area was half the wavelength wide and three wavelengths high. The magnetostrictive cores were made from 4&nbsp;mm stampings of nickel, and later of an [[Alperm|iron-aluminium alloy]] with aluminium content between 12.7% and 12.9%. The power was provided from a 2&nbsp;kW at 3.8&nbsp;kV, with polarization from a 20&nbsp;V, 8&nbsp;A DC source.

The passive hydrophones of the Imperial Japanese Navy were based on moving-coil design, Rochelle salt piezo transducers, and [[carbon microphone]]s.<ref name="USNTMJ-200B-0343-0412">{{cite web |url=http://www.fischer-tropsch.org/primary_documents/gvt_reports/USNAVY/USNTMJ%20Reports/USNTMJ-200B-0343-0412%20Report%20E-10.pdf |title=Japanese Sonar and Asdic |access-date=2015-05-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924013502/http://www.fischer-tropsch.org/primary_documents/gvt_reports/USNAVY/USNTMJ%20Reports/USNTMJ-200B-0343-0412%20Report%20E-10.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 }}</ref>