Editing Shapur I (section)

==Military career==
{{see also|Roman–Persian Wars}}

===The eastern front===
{{Original research|section|date=April 2025|reason=This section seems to be the result of synthesis from primary sources.}}
The eastern provinces of the fledgling Sasanian Empire bordered on the land of the [[Kushans]] and the land of the [[Sakas]] (roughly today's Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan). The military operations of Shapur's father Ardashir I had led to the local Kushan and Saka kings offering tribute to the Sasanians. Satisfied by this show of submission, Ardashir seems to have refrained from occupying their territories. [[Al-Tabari]] alleges that he rebuilt the ancient city of [[Zrang]] in [[Sakastan]] (the land of the Sakas, [[Sistan]]), but the only founding of a new Sasanian settlement in the east which is certain in this period is the building by Shapur I of [[Nishapur]]—"Beautiful (city built) by Shapur"—in [[Dihistan]] (former [[Parthia]], apparently lost by the [[Parthian people|Parthians]] to the Kushans).<ref>Thaalibi 485–486 even ascribes the founding of Badghis and Khwarazm to Ardashir I</ref>

Soon after the death of his father in 241 AD, Shapur felt the need to cut short the campaign they had started in Roman Syria and reassert Sasanian authority in the East, perhaps because the Kushan and Saka kings were lax in abiding by their tributary status. However, he first had to fight "The Medes of the Mountains"—possibly in the mountain range of [[Gilan]] on the Caspian coast—and after subjugating them, he appointed his son Bahram (the later [[Bahram I]]) as their king. He then marched to the East and annexed most of the land of the Kushans, and appointing his son [[Narseh]] as Sakanshah—king of the Sakas—in [[Sistan]]. In 242 AD, Shapur conquered [[Sasanian Khwarazm|khwarezm]].<ref>[[Richard N. Frye|Frye, Richard N]]. (1983). [https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA116 "The political history of Iran under the Sasanians"]. The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods (1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 116–181. {{ISBN|978-0521246934}}.</ref> Shapur could now proudly proclaim that his empire stretched all the way to Peshawar, and his relief in [[Rag-i-Bibi]] in present-day Afghanistan confirms this claim.<ref>W. Soward, "The Inscription of Shapur I at Naqsh-E Rustam in Fars", sasanika.org, 3.<br/>Cf. F. Grenet, J. Lee, P. Martinez, F. Ory, "The Sasanian Relief at Rag-i Bibi (Northern Afghanistan)” in G. Hermann, J. Cribb (ed.), After Alexander. Central Asia before Islam (London 2007), pp. 259–260</ref> Shapur I claims in his [[Naqsh-e Rostam]] inscription possession of the territory of the Kushans ({{Lang|pal-Latn|Kūšān šahr}}) as far as "Purushapura" ([[Peshawar]]), suggesting he controlled [[Bactria]] and areas as far as the [[Hindu-Kush]] or even south of it:{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017a|pp=202–203}}{{full citation needed<!--There are two sources that match this author/date. Please use a and b after the year both here and in the full citations.-->|date=April 2021}}

{{blockquote|I, the Mazda-worshipping lord, Shapur, king of kings of Iran and An-Iran… (I) am the Master of the Domain of Iran (Ērānšahr) and possess the territory of Persis, Parthian… Hindestan, the Domain of the Kushan up to the limits of Paškabur and up to Kash, Sughd, and Chachestan.|[[Naqsh-e Rostam]] inscription of Shapur I}}

He seems to have garrisoned the Eastern territories with prisoners of war from his previous campaign against the Medes of the Mountains. Agathias claims [[Bahram II]] (274–293 AD) later campaigned in the land of the Sakas and appointed his brother Hormizd as its king. When Hormizd revolted, the [[Panegyrici Latini]] list his forces as the Sacci (Sakas), the Rufii (Cusii/Kushans) and the Geli (Gelans / [[Gilaks]], the inhabitants of [[Gilan]]). Since the Gilaks are obviously out of place among these easterners, and as we know that Shapur I had to fight the Medes of the Mountains first before marching to the land of the Kushans, it is conceivable those Gilaks were the descendants of warriors captured during Shapur I's North-western campaign, forcibly drafted into the Sasanian army, and settled as a hereditary garrison in [[Merv]], [[Nishapur]], or [[Zrang]] after the conclusion of Shapur's north-eastern campaign, the usual Sasanian practice with prisoners of war.<ref>Agathias 4.24.6–8; Panegyrici Latini N3.16.25; Thaalibi 495; {{cite book|author=Arthur Christensen|title=L'Iran sous les Sassanides|place=Copenhague|year=1944 |publisher=Ejnar Munksgaard |url=https://archive.org/details/christensen-liran-sous-les-sa |language=fr |page=214}}</ref>

===Roman campaigns===
[[Image:N-Mesopotamia and Syria.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Map showing the Roman-Sasanian borders after the peace treaty in 244]]

Towards the end of his reign, Ardashir I had renewed the war against the [[Roman Empire]], and Shapur I had conquered the [[Mesopotamia]]n fortresses [[Nisibis]] and [[Carrhae]] and had advanced into [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]]. In 242, the Romans under the father-in-law of their child-emperor [[Gordian III]] set out against the Sasanians with "a huge army and great quantity of gold" (according to a Sasanian rock relief), and wintered in [[Antioch]], while Shapur was occupied with subduing [[Gilan]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], and [[Sistan]].{{sfn|Raditsa|2000|p=125}} There the Roman general [[Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus|Timesitheus]] fought against the Sasanians and won repeated battles, and recaptured Carrhae and Nisibis, and at last routed a Sasanian army at Resaena, forcing the Persians to restore all occupied cities unharmed to their citizens. "We have penetrated as far as Nisibis, and shall even get to [[Ctesiphon]]," the young emperor [[Gordian III]], who had joined his father-in-law Timesitheus, exultantly wrote to the Senate.

The Romans later invaded eastern Mesopotamia but faced tough resistance from Shapur I who returned from the East. [[Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus|Timesitheus]] died under uncertain circumstances and was succeeded by [[Philip the Arab]]. The young emperor Gordian III went to the [[Battle of Misiche]] and was either killed in the battle or murdered by the Romans after the defeat. The Romans then chose Philip the Arab as Emperor. Philip was not willing to repeat the mistakes of previous claimants and was aware that he had to return to Rome to secure his position with the Senate. Philip concluded a peace with Shapur I in 244; he had agreed that Armenia lay within Persia's sphere of influence. He also had to pay an enormous indemnity to the Persians of 500,000 gold denarii.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} Philip immediately issued coins proclaiming that he had made peace with the Persians ({{lang|la|pax fundata cum Persis}}).{{sfn|Southern|2003|p=71}}
Shapur I commemorated this victory on several rock reliefs in [[Fars province|Pars]].

Philip later broke the treaty and seized lost territory,{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} Shapur I invaded Mesopotamia in 250 but again, serious trouble arose in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and Shapur I had to march over there and settle its affair.

Having settled the affair in Khorasan he resumed the invasion of Roman territories, and later annihilated a Roman force of 60,000 at the [[Battle of Barbalissos]]. He then burned and ravaged the Roman province of [[Syria]] and all its dependencies.
[[File:Naghsh-e rostam, Irán, 2016-09-24, DD 12.jpg|thumb|Rock-face relief at [[Naqsh-e Rostam]] of Shapur (on horseback) with [[Philip the Arab]] and [[Emperor Valerian]]]]
[[Image:HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg|thumb|right|''The Humiliation of [[Emperor Valerian]] by Shapur I'', pen and ink, [[Hans Holbein the Younger]], ca. 1521. At the time it was made, the above rock-face relief was unknown in the west.]]

Shapur I then reconquered [[Armenia]], and incited [[Anak the Parthian]] to murder the king of Armenia, [[Khosrov II of Armenia|Khosrov II]]. Anak did as Shapur asked, and had Khosrov murdered in 258; yet Anak himself was shortly thereafter murdered by Armenian nobles.<ref>Hovannisian, ''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century'', p. 72</ref> Shapur then appointed his son [[Hormizd I]] as the "Great King of Armenia". With Armenia subjugated, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] submitted to the Sasanian Empire and fell under the supervision of a Sasanian official.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} With Georgia and Armenia under control, the Sasanians' borders on the north were thus secured.

During Shapur's invasion of [[Roman Syria|Syria]] he captured important Roman cities like [[Antioch]]. The emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] (253–260) marched against him and by 257 Valerian had recovered Antioch and returned the province of Syria to Roman control. The speedy retreat of Shapur's troops caused Valerian to pursue the Persians to [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], but they were [[Battle of Edessa|defeated]], and Valerian, along with the Roman army that was left, was captured by Shapur{{sfn|Frye|2000|p=126}} Shapur then advanced into [[Asia Minor]] and managed to capture [[Siege of Caesarea (260)|Caesarea]],{{sfn|Henning|1939|p=842}} deporting hundred upon thousands of Roman citizens to the Sasanian empire.{{sfn|Henning|1939|p=843}} He used these captive Roman citizens to build a [[Levee|dyke]] near [[Shushtar]], called "Caesar's dyke".{{sfn|Henning|1939|p=843}}

The victory over Valerian is presented in a mural at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]], where Shapur is represented on horseback wearing royal armor and a crown. Before him kneels a man in Roman dress, asking for grace. The same scene is repeated in other rock-face inscriptions.<ref>{{cite book |author=Grishman, R. |year=1995 |title=Iran From the Beginning Until Islam}}</ref>
Christian tradition has Shapur I humiliating Valerian, infamous for his [[persecution of Christians]], by the [[King of Kings]] using the Emperor as a footstool to mount his horse, and they claim he later died a miserable death in captivity at the hands of the enemy. However, just as with the above-mentioned [[Gilaks]] deported to the East by Shapur, the Persian treatment of prisoners of war was unpleasant but honorable, drafting the captured Romans and their Emperor into their army and deporting them to a remote place, [[Bishapur]] in [[Khuzistan (Sasanian province)|Khuzistan]], where they were settled as a garrison and built a weir with bridge for Shapur.<ref>{{cite book |author=A. Tafazzoll |year=1990 |title=History of Ancient Iran |page=183}}</ref>

However, the Persian forces were later defeated by the Roman officer [[Balista]] and the lord of [[Palmyra]] [[Septimius Odaenathus]], who captured the royal harem. Shapur plundered the eastern borders of Syria and returned to Ctesiphon, probably in late 260.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2002}} In 264 Septimius Odaenathus reached Ctesiphon, but failed to take the city.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=oRyDnAwJCTwC&dq=odaenathus+ctesiphon+failed&pg=PA214 Who's Who in the Roman World] By John Hazel</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QybaAAAAMAAJ&q=odaenathus+ctesiphon++walls Babylonia Judaica in the Talmudic Period] By A'haron Oppenheimer, Benjamin H. Isaac, Michael Lecker</ref>

The [[Colossal Statue of Shapur I]], which stands in the Shapur Cave, is one of the most impressive sculptures of the [[Sasanian Empire]].