Editing Semiconductor device fabrication (section)

==List of steps==

This is a list of processing techniques that are employed numerous times throughout the construction of a modern electronic device; this list does not necessarily imply a specific order, nor that all techniques are taken during manufacture as, in practice the order and which techniques are applied, are often specific to process offerings by foundries, or specific to an [[integrated device manufacturer]] (IDM) for their own products, and a semiconductor device might not need all techniques. Equipment for carrying out these processes is made by [[Semiconductor equipment sales leaders by year|a handful of companies]]. All equipment needs to be tested before a semiconductor fabrication plant is started.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/toshiba-chips-idUSL4N23S1UT|title=Power outage partially halts Toshiba Memory's chip plant|date=June 21, 2019|via=www.reuters.com|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=December 16, 2019|archive-date=December 16, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216090315/https://www.reuters.com/article/toshiba-chips-idUSL4N23S1UT|url-status=live}}</ref> These processes are done after [[integrated circuit design]]. A semiconductor fab operates 24/7<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNfHxbfsys4C&dq=semiconductor+12+hour+shift&pg=PA489|title=Occupational Outlook Handbook|first=U. S. Dept of|last=Labor|date=February 19, 2000|publisher=JIST Publishing|isbn=978-1-56370-677-6 |via=Google Books}}</ref> and many fabs use large amounts of water, primarily for rinsing the chips.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2020/ph240/multani2/|title=Water Scarcity and the Semiconductor Industry|website=large.stanford.edu}}</ref>
* Wafer processing (also called front end)<ref name="stmicro-an900">{{cite web |url=https://www.st.com/resource/en/application_note/cd00003986-introduction-to-semiconductor-technology-stmicroelectronics.pdf |title=Introduction to Semiconductor Technology |type=application note |publisher=[[STMicroelectronics]] |id=AN900}}</ref>
** Wet cleans
*** Cleaning by solvents such as [[acetone]], [[trichloroethylene]] or [[ultrapure water]] sometimes while spinning the wafer
*** [[Piranha solution]]
*** [[RCA clean]]
*** Wafer scrubbing
*** Spin cleaning<ref name=HSW_1>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3JOZDgAAQBAJ&dq=wafer+spin+cleaning&pg=PA223|title=Handbook of Silicon Wafer Cleaning Technology|first1=Karen|last1=Reinhardt|first2=Werner|last2=Kern|page=223| date=March 16, 2018|access-date=8 January 2024| publisher=William Andrew|isbn=978-0-323-51085-1 }}</ref>
*** Jet spray cleaning<ref name=HSW_1/>
*** Cryogenic aerosol<ref name=TAW_1>{{cite journal| title=A Theoretical Analysis of Wafer Cleaning Using a Cryogenic Aerosol| author=Natraj Narayanswami| url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.1391679/pdf| journal=[[Journal of the Electrochemical Society]]| volume=146| issue=2|date=1999| pages=767–774| access-date=8 January 2024| doi=10.1149/1.1391679| bibcode=1999JElS..146..767N}}</ref>
*** [[Megasonic cleaning|Megasonic]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://semiengineering.com/wafer-cleaning-becomes-key-challenge-in-manufacturing-3d-structures/|title=Wafer Cleaning Becomes Key Challenge In Manufacturing 3D Structures|first=Adele|last=Hars|date=October 20, 2022|website=Semiconductor Engineering}}</ref>
*** Immersion batch cleaning<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=emRGQ4Ts7BAC&dq=wafer+spin+cleaning&pg=PA10|title=Cleaning and Surface Conditioning Technology in Semiconductor Device Manufacturing 11|first=Takeshi|last=Hattori|date=September 30, 2009|publisher=The Electrochemical Society|isbn=978-1-56677-742-1 |via=Google Books}}</ref>
** [[Surface passivation]]
** [[Photolithography]]
*** Photoresist coating (often as a liquid, on the entire wafer)
*** Photoresist baking (solidification in an oven)
*** Edge bead removal<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgDmEAAAQBAJ&dq=photoresist+edge+bead+removal&pg=PA1439 | isbn=978-981-99-2836-1 | title=Handbook of Integrated Circuit Industry | date=27 November 2023 | publisher=Springer }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9624953|title=An Investigation of Edge Bead Removal Width Variability, Effects and Process Control in Photolithographic Manufacturing |journal=IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing |volume=35 |issue=1 |date=February 2022 |doi=10.1109/TSM.2021.3129770 |s2cid=244560651 |last1=Reiter |first1=Tamas |last2=McCann |first2=Michael |last3=Connolly |first3=James |last4=Haughey |first4=Sean |pages=60–66 }}</ref>
*** Exposure (in a photolithography stepper, scanner or mask aligner)
*** Post Exposure Baking (PEB) improves the durability of the photoresist
*** Development (removal of parts of the resist by application of a  liquid developer, leaving  only parts of the wafer exposed for ion implantation, layer deposition, etching, etc)
** [[Ion implantation]] (in which [[dopant]]s are embedded in the wafer creating regions of increased or decreased conductivity)
**[[Etching (microfabrication)]]
*** [[Dry etching]] ([[plasma etching]])
**** [[Reactive-ion etching]] (RIE)
*****[[Deep reactive-ion etching]] (DRIE)
***** [[Atomic layer etching]] (ALE)
****** Plasma ALE<ref name="auto8">{{Cite web|url=https://semiengineering.com/whats-next-for-atomic-layer-etch/|title=What's Next For Atomic Layer Etch?|first=Mark|last=LaPedus|date=November 16, 2017|website=Semiconductor Engineering}}</ref>
****** Thermal ALE<ref name="auto8"/>
*** [[Etching (microfabrication)|Wet etching]]
****[[Buffered oxide etch]]
** [[Chemical vapor deposition]] (CVD)
*** [[Metal organic chemical vapor deposition]] (MOCVD), used in LEDs
** [[Atomic layer deposition]] (ALD)
** [[Physical vapor deposition]] (PVD)
*** Sputtering
*** Evaporation
** [[Epitaxy]]<ref name="auto10"/><ref name="auto9">{{cite web | url=https://semiengineering.com/knowledge_centers/manufacturing/process/epitaxy/ | title=Epitaxy }}</ref>
*** [[Molecular beam epitaxy]] (MBE)<ref name=UTP_1>{{cite web| title=Unlocking the Potential of Molecular Beam Epitaxy| author=Pelé, A-F.| url=https://www.eetimes.eu/unlocking-the-potential-of-molecular-beam-epitaxy| publisher=AspenCore| date=29 March 2022| access-date=8 January 2024}}</ref>
** Ion beam deposition<ref name=IBD_1>{{cite web|url=https://sst.semiconductor-digest.com/2008/11/ion-beam-deposition-goes-300mm-with-avizas-new-tool|title=Ion beam deposition goes 300mm with Aviza's new tool| author=Vogler, D.| publisher=Gold Flag Media| date=19 November 2008| access-date=8 January 2024}}</ref>
** [[Plasma ashing]] (for complete photoresist removal/photoresist stripping, also known as dry strip,<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7969207|title=2017 28th Annual SEMI Advanced Semiconductor Manufacturing Conference (ASMC)|doi=10.1109/ASMC.2017.7969207 |chapter=Characterization of thin carbonized photoresist layer and investigation of dry strip process through real-time monitored variable temperature control |date=2017 |last1=Ryu |first1=Je Hyeok |last2=Kim |first2=Byoung Hoon |last3=Yoon |first3=Sung Jin |pages=102–106 |isbn=978-1-5090-5448-0 }}</ref> historically done with a chemical solvent called a resist stripper,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzGoBQAAQBAJ&dq=photoresist+dry+strip&pg=PA8|title=Plasma Processing for VLSI|first1=Norman G.|last1=Einspruch|first2=Dale M.|last2=Brown|date=December 1, 2014|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-1-4832-1775-8 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name=ASP_1>{{cite book| title=Aqueous Single Pass Single Wafer AI/Via Cleaning| author1=Verhaverbeke, S.| author2=Beaudry, C.| author3=Boelen, P.| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KSr1FWUgvz4C&dq=photoresist+dry+strip&pg=PA23| publisher=[[Electrochemical Society]]| pages=23–26| date=2004| isbn=978-1-56677-411-6| access-date=8 January 2024}}</ref> to allow wafers to undergo another round of photolithography)
** Thermal treatments
*** Rapid thermal processing (RTP), [[rapid thermal anneal]]
*** Millisecond thermal processing, millisecond anneal, millisecond processing, flash lamp anneal (FLA)
*** Laser anneal
*** [[Furnace anneal]]s
*** [[Thermal oxidation]]
**** [[LOCOS]]
** Laser lift-off (for [[LED]] production<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.disco.co.jp/eg/news/press/20151207.html|title=Laser Lift-Off(LLO) Ideal for high brightness vertical LED manufacturing - Press Release - DISCO Corporation|website=www.disco.co.jp|access-date=2019-05-26|archive-date=2019-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614223935/http://www.disco.co.jp/eg/news/press/20151207.html|url-status=live}}</ref>)
** Electrochemical deposition (ECD).  See [[Electroplating]].
** [[Chemical-mechanical polishing]] (CMP)
** [[Wafer testing]] (where the electrical performance is verified using [[automatic test equipment]], binning and/or [[laser trimming]] may also be carried out at this step)
* [[Die preparation]]
** [[Through-silicon via]] manufacture (for [[three-dimensional integrated circuit]]s)
** Wafer mounting (wafer is mounted onto a metal frame using [[dicing tape]])
** [[Wafer backgrinding]] and polishing<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.disco.co.jp/eg/products/polisher_etcher/index.html|title=Product Information &#124; Polishers - DISCO Corporation|website=www.disco.co.jp|access-date=2019-05-26|archive-date=2019-05-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526221432/https://www.disco.co.jp/eg/products/polisher_etcher/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> (reduces the thickness of the wafer for thin devices like a [[smartcard]] or [[PCMCIA card]] or wafer bonding and stacking, this can also occur during wafer dicing, in a process known as Dice Before Grind or DBG<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.disco.co.jp/eg/products/process/index.html|title=Product Information &#124; DBG / Package Singulation - DISCO Corporation|website=www.disco.co.jp|access-date=2019-05-26|archive-date=2019-05-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516224834/http://www.disco.co.jp/eg/products/process/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.orbotech.com/spts/about/resources/tech-insights/mems-tech-insights/plasma-dicing-dbg|title=Plasma Dicing (Dice Before Grind) &#124; Orbotech|website=www.orbotech.com}}{{Dead link|date=January 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>)
** [[Wafer bonding]] and stacking (for [[three-dimensional integrated circuit]]s and [[MEMS]])
** [[Redistribution layer]] manufacture (for [[Wafer-level packaging|WLCSP]] packages)
** Wafer bumping (for [[flip chip]] BGA ([[ball grid array]]), and WLCSP packages)
** Die cutting or [[wafer dicing]]
* [[IC packaging]]
** [[Die attachment]] (The die is attached to a leadframe using conductive paste or die attach film.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nitto.com/us/en/products/group/semicon/dicing/007/|title=Electro Conductive Die Attach Film(Under Development) &#124; Nitto|website=www.nitto.com|access-date=2019-05-26|archive-date=2019-05-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526222137/https://www.nitto.com/us/en/products/group/semicon/dicing/007/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.henkel-adhesives.com/us/en/products/industrial-adhesives/die-attach-adhesives/die-attach-film-adhesives.html|title=Die Attach Film Adhesives|website=www.henkel-adhesives.com|access-date=2019-05-26|archive-date=2019-05-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526222132/https://www.henkel-adhesives.com/us/en/products/industrial-adhesives/die-attach-adhesives/die-attach-film-adhesives.html|url-status=live}}</ref>)
** IC bonding: [[Wire bonding]], [[thermosonic bonding]], [[flip chip]] or [[Tape-automated bonding|tape automated bonding]] (TAB)
** [[IC encapsulation]] or integrated heat spreader (IHS) installation
*** Molding (using special plastic molding compound that may contain glass powder as filler to control thermal expansion)
*** Baking
*** [[Electroplating]] (plates the [[copper]] leads of the [[lead frame]]s with [[tin]] to make [[soldering]] easier)
*** Laser marking or silkscreen printing
*** Trim and form (separates the lead frames from each other, and bends the lead frame's pins so that they can be mounted on a [[printed circuit board]])
* [[Semiconductor fabrication#Device test|IC testing]]

Additionally steps such as [[Wright etch]] may be carried out.

[[Image:Comparison semiconductor process nodes.svg|thumb|Progress of miniaturization, and comparison of sizes of semiconductor manufacturing process nodes with some microscopic objects and visible light wavelengths]]