Editing Scottish Enlightenment (section)

==Major intellectual areas==

===Empiricism and inductive reasoning===
{{Cleanup section|reason=Despite the heading, this section lacks content on inductive reasoning.|date=September 2018}}
The first major philosopher of the Scottish Enlightenment was [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]] (1694–1746), who was professor of moral philosophy at Glasgow from 1729 to 1746. He was an important link between the ideas of [[Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury|Shaftesbury]] and the later school of [[Scottish Common Sense Realism]], developing [[Utilitarianism]] and [[Consequentialist]] thinking.<ref name="Mitchison1983p.150"/> Also influenced by Shaftesbury was [[George Turnbull (theologian)|George Turnbull]] (1698–1748), who was regent at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and who published pioneering work in the fields of Christian ethics, art and education.<ref>A. Broadie, ''A History of Scottish Philosophy'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), {{ISBN|0748616276}}, p. 120.</ref>

[[David Hume]] (1711–76) whose ''[[Treatise on Human Nature]]'' (1738) and ''[[Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary|Essays, Moral and Political]]'' (1741) helped outline the parameters of philosophical [[Empiricism]] and [[Scepticism]].<ref name=Mitchison1983p.150>R. Mitchison, ''Lordship to Patronage, Scotland 1603–1745'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1983), {{ISBN|074860233X}}, p. 150.</ref> He would be a major influence on later Enlightenment figures including [[Adam Smith]], [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]].<ref>B. Freydberg, ''David Hume: Platonic Philosopher, Continental Ancestor'' (Suny Press, 2012), {{ISBN|1438442157}}, p. 105.</ref> Hume's argument that there were no efficient causes hidden in nature was supported and developed by [[Thomas Brown (philosopher)|Thomas Brown]] (1778–1820), who was [[Dugald Stewart]]'s (1753–1828) successor at Edinburgh and who would be a major influence on later philosophers including [[John Stuart Mill]].<ref>G. Graham, ''Scottish Philosophy: Selected Readings 1690–1960'' (Imprint Academic, 2004), {{ISBN|0907845746}}, p. 165.</ref>

In contrast to Hume, [[Thomas Reid]] (1710–96), a student of Turnbull's, along with minister [[George Campbell (minister)|George Campbell]] (1719–96) and writer and moralist [[James Beattie (writer)|James Beattie]] (1735–1803), formulated [[Common Sense Realism]].<ref>R. Emerson, "The contexts of the Scottish Enlightenment" in A. Broadie, ed., ''The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), {{ISBN|978-0-521-00323-0}}, p. 21.</ref> Reid set out his theories in ''An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense'' (1764).<ref>E. J. Wilson, P. H. Reill, ''Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment'' (Infobase Publishing, 2nd ed., 2004), {{ISBN|0816053359}}, pp. 499–501.</ref> This approach argued that there are certain concepts, such as human existence, the existence of solid objects and some basic moral "first principles", that are intrinsic to the make up of man and from which all subsequent arguments and systems of morality must be derived. It can be seen as an attempt to reconcile the new scientific developments of the Enlightenment with religious belief.<ref name=Gutjhar2011p39>Paul C. Gutjahr, ''Charles Hodge: Guardian of American Orthodoxy'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), {{ISBN|0199740429}}), p. 39.</ref>

===Literature===
{{Main article|Scottish literature in the eighteenth century}}
Major literary figures originating in Scotland in this period included [[James Boswell]] (1740–95), whose ''An Account of Corsica'' (1768) and ''[[The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides]]'' (1785) drew on his extensive travels and whose ''[[Life of Samuel Johnson]]'' (1791) is a major source on one of the English Enlightenment's major men of letters and his circle.<ref>E. J. Wilson and P. H. Reill, ''Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment'' (Infobase, 2nd ed., 2004), {{ISBN|0816053359}}, p. 68.</ref> [[Allan Ramsay (poet)|Allan Ramsay]] (1686–1758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the [[Habbie stanza]] as a [[poetic form]].<ref>J. Buchan, ''Crowded with Genius'' (London: Harper Collins, 2003), {{ISBN|0-06-055888-1}}, p. 311.</ref> The lawyer [[Henry Home, Lord Kames]] (1696–1782) made a major contribution to the study of literature with ''Elements of Criticism'' (1762), which became the standard textbook on rhetoric and style.<ref>J. Friday, ed., ''Art and Enlightenment: Scottish Aesthetics in the Eighteenth Century'' (Imprint Academic, 2004), {{ISBN|0907845762}}, p. 124.</ref>

[[Hugh Blair]] (1718–1800) was a minister of the Church of Scotland and held the Chair of Rhetoric and [[Belles Lettres]] at the University of Edinburgh. He produced an edition of the works of [[Shakespeare]] and is best known for ''Sermons'' (1777–1801), a five-volume endorsement of practical Christian morality, and Lectures on Rhetoric and ''Belles Lettres'' (1783). The former fused the oratorical arts of humanism with a sophisticated theory on the relationship between cognition and the origins of language.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=Matthew Daniel |title=The Line of Reason: Hugh Blair, Spatiality and the Progressive Structure of Language |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |date=2011 |volume=65 |pages=9–24 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1112084 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.2010.0098|s2cid=190700715 }}</ref> It influenced many leading thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment, including Adam Smith and Dugald Stewart.

Blair was one of the figures who first drew attention to the [[Ossian]] cycle of [[James Macpherson]] to public attention.<ref>G. A. ''Kennedy, Classical Rhetoric and Its Christian and Secular Tradition Form Ancient to Modern Times'' (University of North Carolina Press, 1999), {{ISBN|0807861138}}, p. 282.</ref> Macpherson (1736–96) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian, he published "translations" that were proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] [[Epic poetry|epics]]. ''Fingal'', written in 1762, was speedily translated into many European languages, and its appreciation of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than any single work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German literature, through its influence on [[Johann Gottfried von Herder]] and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]].<ref>J. Buchan, ''Crowded with Genius'' (London: Harper Collins, 2003), {{ISBN|0-06-055888-1}}, p. 163.</ref> Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.<ref>D. Thomson, ''The Gaelic Sources of Macpherson's "Ossian"'' (Aberdeen: Oliver & Boyd, 1952).</ref>

Before [[Robert Burns]] (1759–96) the most important Scottish language poet was [[Robert Fergusson]] (1750–74), who also worked in English. His work often celebrated his native Edinburgh and Enlightenment conviviality, as in his best known poem "Auld Reekie" (1773).<ref name=Carruthers2009pp58-9>G. Carruthers, ''Scottish Literature'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), {{ISBN|074863309X}}, pp. 53–54.</ref> Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is now widely regarded as the [[national poet]] of Scotland and became a major figure in the Romantic movement. As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected [[folk songs]] from across Scotland, often revising or [[Literary adaptation|adapting]] them.<ref>{{cite journal |author=L. McIlvanney |date=Spring 2005 |title=Hugh Blair, Robert Burns, and the Invention of Scottish Literature |journal=Eighteenth-Century Life |volume=29 | issue = 2 |pages=25–46 |doi=10.1215/00982601-29-2-25|s2cid=144358210 }}</ref> Burns's poetry drew upon a substantial familiarity with and knowledge of [[Classics|Classical]], [[Biblical]], and [[English literature]], as well as the Scottish [[Makar]] tradition.<ref name=Literary-Style>Robert Burns: "[http://www.blurbwire.com/topics/Robert_Burns::sub::Literary_Style Literary Style] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016215809/http://www.blurbwire.com/topics/Robert_Burns::sub::Literary_Style |date=2013-10-16 }}". Retrieved on 24 September 2010.</ref>

===Economics===
[[Adam Smith]] developed and published ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'', the starting point of modern economics.<ref name="Samuelson">{{cite book |last= Samuelson |first= Paul |title= Economics |url= https://archive.org/details/economics00samu |url-access= registration |year= 1976 |publisher= [[McGraw-Hill]] |isbn= 0-07-054590-1}}</ref> This study, which had an immediate impact on British [[economic policy]], still frames discussions on [[globalisation]] and [[tariff]]s.<ref name="Fry">{{cite book |last= Fry |first= Michael |others= [[Paul Samuelson]], [[Lawrence Klein]], [[Franco Modigliani]], [[James M. Buchanan]], [[Maurice Allais]], [[Theodore Schultz]], [[Richard Stone]], [[James Tobin]], [[Wassily Leontief]], [[Jan Tinbergen]] |title= Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics |year= 1992 |publisher= [[Routledge]] |isbn= 978-0-415-06164-3 |url-access= registration |url= https://archive.org/details/adamsmithslegacy0000unse }}</ref> The book identified land, labour, and capital as the three factors of production and the major contributors to a nation's wealth, as distinct from the [[Physiocratic]] idea that only agriculture was productive. Smith discussed potential benefits of specialisation by [[division of labour]], including increased [[labour productivity]] and [[gains from trade]], whether between town and country or across countries.<ref>[[Alan Deardorff|Deardorff, Alan V.]], 2006. ''Glossary of International Economics'', [http://www-personal.umich.edu/~alandear/glossary/d.html#DivisionOfLabor Division of labor].</ref> His "theorem" that "the division of labor is limited by the extent of the market" has been described as the "core of a [[Theory of the firm|theory of the functions of firm]] and [[industrial organization|industry]]" and a "fundamental principle of economic organization."<ref>[[George J. Stigler|Stigler, George J.]] (1951). "The Division of Labor Is Limited by the Extent of the Market", ''Journal of Political Economy'', 59(3), pp. [https://www.sfu.ca/~allen/stigler.pdf 185–93.]</ref> In an argument that includes "one of the most famous passages in all economics,"<ref>Samuelson, Paul A., and William D. Nordhaus (2004). ''Economics''. 18th ed., McGraw-Hill, ch. 2, "Markets and Government in a Modern Economy", The Invisible Hand, p. 30.</ref> Smith represents every individual as trying to employ any capital they might command for their own advantage, not that of the society,<ref>'Capital' in Smith's usage includes [[fixed capital]] and [[circulating capital]]. The latter includes wages and labour maintenance, money, and inputs from land, mines, and fisheries associated with production per ''The Wealth of Nations'', Bk. II: ch. 1, 2, and 5.</ref> and for the sake of profit, which is necessary at some level for employing capital in domestic industry, and positively related to the value of produce.<ref>Smith, Adam (1776). ''The Wealth of Nations'', Bk. IV: Of Systems of political Œconomy, ch. II, "Of Restraints upon the Importation from Foreign Countries of such Goods as can be Produced at Home", para. 3–5 and 8–9.</ref> Economists have linked Smith's invisible-hand concept to his concern for the common man and woman through [[economic growth]] and [[economic development|development]],<ref>Smith, Adam (1776). ''The Wealth of Nations'', [[The Wealth of Nations|Bk. I-IV]] and Bk. I, ch. 1, para. 10.</ref> enabling higher levels of consumption, which Smith describes as "the sole end and purpose of all production."<ref>• Smith, Adam (1776). ''The Wealth of Nations'', Bk. IV, ch. 8, para. 49.</ref><ref>• Samuelson, Paul A., and William D. Nordhaus (2004). ''Economics''. 18th ed., McGraw-Hill, ch. 2, "Markets and Government in a Modern Economy", The Invisible Hand, p. 30.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; • Blaug, Mark (2008). "invisible hand", ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd ed., v. 4, pp.&nbsp;564–66. [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_I000220&edition=current&q=Invisible%20hand&topicid=&result_number=1 Abstract].</ref>

===Sociology and anthropology===
Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed what leading thinkers such as [[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo]] (1714–99) and Lord Kames called a ''[[science of man]]'',<ref name="Magnusson">{{cite web|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |title=Northern lights |author=Magnus Magnusson |work=[[New Statesman]] |publisher=Review of [[James Buchan]]'s Capital of the Mind: Edinburgh (Crowded With Genius: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind in the [[United States]]) [[London]]: [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] ISBN 0-7195-5446-2 |date=10 November 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329124427/http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-date=March 29, 2012 |author-link=Magnus Magnusson }}</ref> which was expressed historically in the work of thinkers such as [[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo|James Burnett]], [[Adam Ferguson]], [[John Millar (philosopher)|John Millar]], [[William Robertson (historian)|William Robertson]] and [[John Walker (natural historian)|John Walker]], all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behave in ancient and primitive cultures, with an awareness of the determining forces of [[modernity]]. Modern notions of visual anthropology permeated the lectures of leading Scottish academics like [[Hugh Blair]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Eddy|first=Matthew Daniel|title=The Line of Reason: Hugh Blair, Spatiality and the Progressive Structure of Language|journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society|year=2011|volume=65|pages=9–24|doi=10.1098/rsnr.2010.0098|s2cid=190700715}}</ref> and Alan Swingewood argues that modern sociology largely originated in Scotland.<ref>Alan Swingewood, "Origins of Sociology: the Case of the Scottish Enlightenment," ''The British Journal of Sociology'', Vol. 21, No. 2 (June 1970), pp. 164–80 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/588406 in JSTOR]</ref> [[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo|James Burnett]] is most famous today as a founder of modern comparative historical [[linguistics]]. He was the first major figure to argue that mankind had evolved language skills in response to his changing environment and social structures.<ref name=Hobbs>C. Hobbs, ''Rhetoric on the Margins of Modernity: Vico, Condillac, Monboddo'' (SIU Press, 2002), {{ISBN|978-0-8093-2469-9}}.</ref> He was one of a number of scholars involved in the development of early concepts of [[evolution]] and has been credited with anticipating in principle the idea of [[natural selection]] that was developed into a [[theory|scientific theory]] by [[Charles Darwin]] and Alfred Russel Wallace.<ref>P. J. Bowler, ''Evolution: the History of an Idea'' (Berkeley CA: University of California Press, 1989), {{ISBN|978-0-520-06386-0}}, p. 51.</ref>

===Mathematics, science and medicine===
One of the central pillars of the Scottish Enlightenment was scientific and medical knowledge. Many of the key thinkers were trained as physicians or had studied science and medicine at university or on their own at some point in their career. Likewise, there was a notable presence of university medically-trained professionals, especially physicians, apothecaries, surgeons and even ministers, who lived in provincial settings.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eddy|first1=Matthew Daniel|title='The Sparkling Nectar of Spas: The Medical and Commercial Relevance of Mineral Water', in Ursula Klein and Emma Spary (eds.), Materials and Expertise in Early Modern Europe: Between Market and Laboratory|date=2010|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|pages=198–226|url=https://www.academia.edu/1114266}}</ref> Unlike England or other European countries like France or Austria, the intelligentsia of Scotland were not beholden to powerful aristocratic patrons and this led them to see science through the eyes of utility, improvement and reform.<ref>{{Cite book|title=How the Scots Invented the Modern World: The true story of how western europe's poorest nation created our world and everything in it|url=https://archive.org/details/howscotsinvented00arth|url-access=limited|last=Herman|first=Arthur|publisher=Three Rivers Press|year=2001|isbn=0-609-80999-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/howscotsinvented00arth/page/321 321]–322}}</ref>

[[Colin Maclaurin]] (1698–1746) was appointed as chair of mathematics by the age of 19 at Marischal College, and was the leading British mathematician of his era.<ref name=Mitchison1983p.150/> Mathematician and physicist [[Sir John Leslie]] (1766–1832) is chiefly noted for his experiments with heat and was the first person to artificially create ice.<ref>N. Chambers, ed., ''The Letters of Sir Joseph Banks: A Selection, 1768–1820'' (World Scientific, 2000), {{ISBN|1860942040}}, p. 376.</ref>

Other major figures in science included [[William Cullen]] (1710–90), physician and chemist, [[James Anderson of Hermiston|James Anderson]] (1739–1808), agronomist. [[Joseph Black]] (1728–99), physicist and chemist, discovered carbon dioxide (fixed air) and [[latent heat]],<ref>R. Mitchelson, ''A History of Scotland'' (London: Routledge, 2002), 0203412710, p. 352.</ref> and developed what many consider to be the first chemical formulae.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Eddy|first1=Matthew Daniel|title=How to See a Diagram: A Visual Anthropology of Chemical Affinity|journal=Osiris|date=2014|pages=178–96|doi=10.1086/678093|pmid=26103754|url=https://www.academia.edu/4588508|volume=29|s2cid=20432223}}</ref>

[[James Hutton]] (1726–97) was the first modern [[geologist]], with his ''Theory of the Earth'' (1795) challenging existing ideas about the [[age of the Earth]].<ref name="Denby">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/10/11/041011crat_atlarge |title=Northern Lights: How modern life emerged from eighteenth-century Edinburgh |author=David Denby |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |publisher=Review of [[James Buchan]]'s Crowded With Genius: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind (Capital of the Mind: Edinburgh in the [[UK]]) [[HarperCollins]], 2003. Hardcover: ISBN 0-06-055888-1, ISBN 978-0-06-055888-8 |date=11 October 2004 |author-link=David Denby (film critic) }}</ref><ref name="Repcheck">{{cite book |last=Repcheck |first=Jack |title=The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/manwhofoundtimej0000repc |chapter-url-access=registration |year=2003 |publisher=[[Basic Books]], [[Perseus Books Group]] |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |isbn=0-7382-0692-X |pages=[https://archive.org/details/manwhofoundtimej0000repc/page/117 117–43] |chapter=Chapter 7: The Athens of the North}}</ref> His ideas were popularised by the scientist and mathematician [[John Playfair]] (1748–1819).<ref>https://archive.org/details/NHM104643 {{cite book |author=Playfair, John |title=Illustration of the Huttonian Theory |year=1802 |publisher=Cadell & Davies |location=Edinburgh}} at [https://archive.org/ archive.org]</ref> Prior to [[James Hutton]], Rev. [[David Ure]] then minister to East Kilbride Parish was the first to represent the shells 'entrochi' in illustrations and make accounts of the geology of southern Scotland. The findings of [[David Ure]] were influential enough to inspire the Scottish endeavour to the recording and interpretation of [[natural history]] and [[Fossils]], a major part of the Scottish Enlightenment.<ref>''Life of Rev. David Ure'', 1865</ref><ref>''History of Rutherglen and East Kilbride'', 1793, David Ure</ref>

Edinburgh became a major centre of medical teaching and research.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bynum|first1=W. F.|last2=Porter|first2=Roy|title=William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nJc0wTuTGuMC&pg=PA142|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=142–43|isbn=9780521525176}}</ref>