Editing Salamander (section)

===Senses===
[[File:P anguinus-head1.jpg|thumb|right|The front part of the [[olm]]'s head carries sensitive chemo-, mechano-, and electroreceptors.]]
[[File:Biofluorescent patterns across salamander diversity and anatomy - 41598 2020 59528 Fig1.jpg|thumb|[[Biofluorescence]] can be observed across various salamander species]]
====Smell====
[[Olfaction]] in salamanders plays a role in territory maintenance, the recognition of predators, and courtship rituals, but is probably secondary to sight during prey selection and feeding. Salamanders have two types of sensory areas that respond to the chemistry of the environment. Olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity picks up airborne and aquatic odors, while adjoining [[vomeronasal organ]]s detect nonvolatile chemical cues, such as tastes in the mouth. In plethodonts, the sensory epithelium of the vomeronasal organs extends to the [[Nasolabial fold|nasolabial grooves]], which stretch from the nostrils to the corners of the mouth. These extended areas seem to be associated with the identification of prey items, the recognition of [[conspecifics]], and the identification of individuals.<ref name=stebbins40>Stebbins & Cohen (1995) pp. 37–40</ref>

====Vision====
The eyes of most salamanders are adapted primarily for vision at night. In some permanently aquatic species, they are reduced in size and have a simplified [[retina]]l structure, and in cave dwellers such as the [[Georgia blind salamander]], they are absent or covered with a layer of skin. In amphibious species, the eyes are a compromise and are [[nearsighted]] in air and [[farsighted]] in water. Fully terrestrial species such as the [[fire salamander]] have a flatter lens which can focus over a much wider range of distances.<ref name=stebbins44>Stebbins & Cohen (1995) pp. 42–44</ref>
To find their prey, salamanders use [[trichromatic]] [[color vision]] extending into the [[ultraviolet]] range, based on three [[photoreceptor cell|photoreceptor]] types that are maximally sensitive around 450, 500, and 570&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Przyrembel, C. |author2=Keller, B. |author3=Neumeyer, C. |year=1995 |title=Trichromatic color vision in the salamander (''Salamandra salamandra'') |journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology |volume=176 |issue=4 |pages=575–586 |doi=10.1007/BF00196422 |s2cid=749622 }}</ref> The larvae, and the adults of some highly aquatic species, also have a [[lateral line]] organ, similar to that of fish, which can detect changes in water pressure.<ref name="EoR pp.60–68"/>

====Hearing====
All salamanders lack middle ear cavity, [[Tympanum (anatomy)|eardrum]] and [[eustachian tube]], but have an opercularis system like frogs, and are still able to detect airborne sound.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ps6AwAAQBAJ&q=%22all+salamanders+lack+the+middle+ear+cavity%22&pg=PT227|title=Amphibian Evolution: The Life of Early Land Vertebrates|first=Rainer R.|last=Schoch|date=19 March 2014|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|access-date=15 July 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9781118759134}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/02/150206125257.htm|title=Researchers reveal how hearing evolved|website=sciencedaily.com|access-date=15 July 2018|archive-date=16 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716025457/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/02/150206125257.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The opercularis system consists of two ossicles: the columella (equivalent to the [[stapes]] of [[higher vertebrates]]) which is fused to the skull, and the operculum. An opercularis muscle connects the latter to the pectoral girdle, and is kept under tension when the animal is alert.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Becker, R. P. |author2=Lombard, R. E. |year=1977 |title=Structural correlates of function in the "opercularis" muscle of amphibians |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |volume=175 |issue=4 |pages=499–522 |pmid=830429 |doi=10.1007/bf00222415|s2cid=25650919 }}</ref> The system seems able to detect low-frequency vibrations (500–600&nbsp;Hz), which may be picked up from the ground by the fore limbs and transmitted to the inner ear. These may serve to warn the animal of an approaching predator.<ref name=stebbins72>Stebbins & Cohen (1995) pp. 69–72</ref>

====Vocalization====
Salamanders are usually considered to have no voice and do not use sound for communication in the way that frogs do. Before mating, they communicate by pheromone signaling; some species make quiet ticking, clicking, squeaks or popping noises,<ref name=":2" /> perhaps by the opening and closing of valves in the nose. Most salamanders lack vocal cords, but a larynx is present in the mudpuppy (Necturus) and some other species, and the Pacific giant salamanders and a few others have a large larynx and bands known as plicae vocales.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Rur4DwAAQBAJ&dq=Pacific+giant+salamander+larynx+bands+plicae+vocales&pg=PA123 Vertebrate Biology: Systematics, Taxonomy, Natural History, and Conservation]</ref> The [[California giant salamander]] can produce a bark or rattle, and a few species can squeak by contracting muscles in the throat. The arboreal salamander can squeak using a different mechanism; it retracts its eyes into its head, forcing air out of its mouth. The [[Ensatina|ensatina salamander]] occasionally makes a hissing sound, while the [[Siren (genus)|sirens]] sometimes produce quiet clicks, and can resort to faint shrieks if attacked. Similar clicking behaviour was observed in two European newts ''[[Lissotriton vulgaris]]'' and ''[[Ichthyosaura alpestris]]'' in their aquatic phase.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |author1=Hubáček, J. |author2=Šugerková, M. |author3=Gvoždík, L. |year=2019 |title=Underwater sound production varies within not between species in sympatric newts |journal=PeerJ |volume=7 |page=e6649 |doi=10.7717/peerj.6649|pmid=30944780 |pmc=6441559 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Vocalization in salamanders has been little studied and the purpose of these sounds is presumed to be the startling of predators.<ref name=stebbins77>Stebbins & Cohen (1995) pp. 76–77</ref>

[[File:Salamander -QDB.JPG|thumb|upright|Salamanders need moist environments to respire through their skin.]]