Editing Robert Estienne (section)

===Religious texts===
Although Robert Estienne was printing Bibles in Latin as early as 1528, he printed his first Greek New Testament in 1546. Despite its similarity to the works of Erasmus, Estienne did not credit Erasmus and rather claimed to be influenced by ancient codices.{{sfn|Adams|2016|p=18-19}} The first two are beautiful Greek texts, called ''O mirifica''.{{sfn|Harwood|1778|p=121}} The third and most significant is known as the [[Editio Regia]] or the "Royal Edition", published in 1550 for King Henri II. Typographically it is significant because the Greek font made by Garamond became the most widely used Greek font for European printers. In it he combined over 15 Greek sources with annotations in the margins.<ref>{{harvnb|Sawyer|2012|p=91}}; {{harvnb|Adams|2016|p=19}}</ref> The 1550 version became known as the ''[[Textus Receptus]]'', the standard text for many generations.{{sfn|Armstrong|1986|p=303}} The 1551 edition contains [[Erasmus]]'s Latin translation and the [[Vulgate]]. Scholars have described his editing of the Vulgate as mediocre and lacking in effort or depth.{{sfn|Armstrong|1986|p=75}} In this edition of the Vulgate, Estienne introduced the division of the [[New Testament]] into chapter '''and''' verses for the first time.<ref name="EstiennesNumbering">{{cite web|title=The Printer's Device: Robert Estienne's Numbering of Verses and the Changing Form of the New Testament in the 15th and 16th Centuries|url=http://www.pitts.emory.edu/collections/digitalcollections/exhibits/printers-device.cfm|website=pitts.emory.edu|publisher=Pitts Theology Library, Emory University|access-date=23 January 2018}}</ref> [[File:Gospel Estienne 1550.jpg|left|thumb|A page from Estienne's 1550 version of the New Testament using Garamond's ''[[Grecs du roi]]'']]After he finished the Vulgate, he began developing his style. He was interested in working on original texts rather than translations. Additionally, he was interested in writing commentaries to help an average reader understand the academic texts to the point of adding his own interpretation.{{sfn|Armstrong|1986|p=78}} Moreover, Estienne's commentary in the fourth edition of the Greek New Testament initiated the antagonism of the Sorbonne against Estienne.{{sfn|Simon|Hunwick|2013|pp=xvii-xviii}}

He published two editions of the Hebrew Bible: one in 13 volumes and another one in 10 volumes.<ref>M'Clintock, John and Strong, James (1880) ''Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature''. Vol. IX, s.v. "Stephens" New York: Harper & Brothers. The commentator is David Kimhi (Hebrew: דוד קמחי, also Kimchi or Qimḥi).</ref> Estienne acquired Vulgate manuscripts while in Paris and printed a number of editions throughout his career. The principal editions are the 1527, 1532, 1540 (one of the ornaments of his press), and 1546. In the 1532 edition, he placed the Acts in between the gospels and epistles of Paul as is standard in most Bibles. Before this, the Acts were usually found at the end.{{sfn|Armstrong|1986|p=21}} Furthermore, typographer and printing historian [[Stanley Morison]] claimed that Estienne's 1532 folio Bible contained, "what is probably the finest use ever made of [the Garamond] letter."{{sfn|Amert|2012|p=230}} Estienne printed this edition of the Bible in a grand folio format; his expected buyers were the nobility and the wealthy rather than the university faculty/students.{{sfn|Amert|2012|p=215}} Though in 1543, his style shifted to that of sextodecimo format, printing Bibles in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, which assumes the buyers are students and professors.{{sfn|Amert|2012|p=215}}

His editions, especially that of 1546, containing a new translation at the side of the Vulgate, was the subject of sharp and acrimonious criticism from the clergy. In 1539 he received the distinguishing title of "Printer to the king" for Latin and Hebrew, and later for Greek.{{refn|group=nb|Despite Estienne's access to the ''grecs du roi'', printer Conrad Neobar was appointed "Printer to the king" in Greek in 1539. After Neobar's death in 1540, Estienne took the title of "Printer to the king" in Greek upon himself, without ever being officially given the title<ref>Steinberg 1996, p.53</ref>}}<ref>{{harvnb|Reverdin|1956|p=239}}; {{harvnb|Thomas|2009|p=840}}</ref> This incited anger from the Sorbonne because Estienne had converted from Catholicism to Protestantism.<ref>{{harvnb|Fulton|Poole|2018|p=28}};{{harvnb|Thomas|1870|p=938}}</ref> The Sorbonne was opposed to the humanist ideals of the time and was attempting to censor Estienne's publishing firm.<ref name="glass" /> He was protected by [[Francis I of France]] with whom he enjoyed strong patronage and friendship; Estienne aided Francis I in printing documents ratifying policies which established and justified his power.{{sfn|Steinberg|1996|p=41}} Later, Estienne published a document to inform the public how alliances between French royalty, German Protestants, and Turkish royalty were beneficial for European religious peace.{{sfn|Steinberg|1996|p=41}} In 1538, Francis I requested that Estienne give a copy of every Greek book he had printed to create the royal library, which became the first copyright library.{{sfn|Steinberg|1996|p=41}} However, after Francis I died in 1547 and was succeeded by [[Henry II of France|Henry II]],{{sfn|Thomas|1870|p=938}} Estienne fled to Geneva around 1550.{{sfn|Rogal|1886|p=56}} With him, he brought his printing material, including his Greek type made by Garamond.{{sfn|Reverdin|1956|p=240}}