Editing River Parrett (section)

=== Landscape ===
[[File:River Parrett north of Petherton Bridge.jpg|alt=Small water-filled ditch between grassy banks.|thumb|left|The river near the [[A303 road|A303]] at [[South Petherton]]]]
The River Parrett, the Bristol Channel and the Severn Estuary are believed to have been used for riverine bulk transportation of people and supplies in Somerset under [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and later Anglo-Saxon and [[Norman dynasty|Norman]] occupation.<ref>{{harvnb|Leach|2001|pp=73–83}}</ref> Roman Somerset, which lasted for over 250&nbsp;years until around the beginning of the 5th century,<ref>{{harvnb|Page|1906|p=210}}</ref> had various settlements, including [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]] (''[[Aquae Sulis]]''), [[Ilchester]] (''[[Lindinis]]'') and lead mines at [[Charterhouse Roman Town|Charterhouse]];<ref name="rajan">{{cite news|first=Amal |last=Rajan |title=Around a county in 40 facts: A (very) brief history of Somerset |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/around-a-county-in-40-facts-a-very-brief-history-of-somerset-462828.html |work=The Independent |location=UK |date=24 August 2007 |access-date=21 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214141911/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/around-a-county-in-40-facts-a-very-brief-history-of-somerset-462828.html |archive-date=14 February 2009 }}</ref> and four roads surrounding the Somerset Levels. There is evidence of two Roman ports on the Parrett. The port at Combwich, on the west bank, was ill-recorded before its destruction by quarrying and erosion. The other at Crandon Bridge on the east bank near where the current King's Sedgemoor Drain enters the Parrett,<ref name="rippon(1997)-53-55">{{Harvnb|Rippon|1997|pages=53–55}}</ref><ref name="rippon(2007)-8">{{harvnb|Rippon|2007|pp=207–227}}</ref> was in use between the first and the fourth centuries.<ref name="dunning-183">{{Harvnb|Dunning|1992|page=183}}</ref> Evidence of an extensive site with storehouses was found in the mid-1970s, during motorway construction works.<ref name="rippon(1997)-53-55"/> The Crandon Bridge site may have been linked by a probable Roman road over the [[Polden Hills]] to the [[Fosse Way]], at Ilchester.<ref name="rippon(1997)-53-55"/><ref name="dunning-183"/><ref name="hollinrakes">{{harvnb|Hollinrake|Hollinrake|2007|pp=228–234}}</ref> Ilchester, the largest Roman town in Somerset, was a port with large [[Granary|granaries]], sited where the Fosse Way crossed the [[River Yeo (South Somerset)|Ilchester Yeo]] by means of a paved ford.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunning|1974|pages=179–203}}</ref> The Yeo was navigable by small craft all the way to the Parrett allowing military supplies to be brought by boat directly to Ilchester; however, disembarkation at Crandon Bridge and use of the Polden Hills roadway allowed more rapid movement to Ilchester. The Yeo may already have been straightened and [[canal]]ised before Roman occupation.<ref name="hollinrakes"/>

The Parrett was established as the border between the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of [[Wessex]] and the [[Britons (Celtic people)|Brythonic]] kingdom of [[Dumnonia]] in 658, following the Dumnonians' defeat at the [[Battle of Peonnum]] that year.<ref>{{harvnb|Stenton|1971|p=63}}</ref><ref name="Hawkins 1982 36">{{harvnb|Hawkins|1982|p=36}}</ref> This natural border endured for almost a century until further fighting between the Anglo-Saxons and Britons in the mid-8th century, when the border shifted west to its current location between the modern [[Ceremonial counties of England|ceremonial counties]] of Somerset and [[Devon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dunning|2002|pp=17–18}}</ref> It is thought a [[Ford (crossing)|ford]], usable only at low tide, crossed the river near its mouth, between Combwich and Pawlett (east bank). This crossing, at the western end of the Polden Hills, was known since Roman times and lay on the route of a Saxon ''[[herepath]]''.<ref name="dunning-73-75">{{Harvnb|Dunning|1992|pp=73–75}}</ref> It was here, or in the immediate vicinity, that Hubba, the Danish raider, was defeated and killed by [[Odda, Ealdorman of Devon|Odda]] in 878.<ref name="robinson">{{harvnb|Robinson|1992|p=50}}</ref> In the ''[[Domesday Book]]'' Combwich was known as Comich, which means "the settlement by the water", from the Old English ''cumb'' and ''wic''. The ford was later replaced by a ferry, one of which was in operation from at least the 13th century.<ref name="dunning-73-75"/> In the 15th century the ferry was regarded as part of the ''King's Highway'', and both passengers and cattle were carried in the 16th and 17th centuries.<ref name="dunning-73-75"/><ref name="dunning-267-268">{{Harvnb|Dunning|1992|pp=267–268}}</ref> Records of the joint [[Manorialism|Manorial]] ownership and costs of the ferry exist for 1589 and 1810.<ref name="dunning-267-268"/> The ''White House Inn'', a [[licensed victualler]] and part-owner of the ferry, traded on the Pawlett bank from 1655 to 1897; the building was retained as a farm dwelling for another 20&nbsp;years.<ref name="dunning-267-268"/> The Combwich river crossing, which was a main route until the 18th century, fell out of use due to [[turnpike trusts]] improving what were to become the [[A38 road|A38]] and [[A39 road]]s, and traffic went via Bridgwater; the former inn was demolished c.&nbsp;1930.<ref name="dunning-267-268"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Fitzhugh|1993|p=69}}</ref>

After the departure of the Romans, the low-lying Somerset Levels appear to have been abandoned, as the [[archaeological record]] shows that they were flooded and the former Roman landscape covered with a thick layer of [[Alluvium|alluvial]] deposits.<ref name="rippon-178">{{Harvnb|Rippon|1997|page=178}}</ref> Recovery of the levels involved both the construction of sea walls and the containment of the Parrett.<ref name="rippon-178"/> [[Celtic Christianity]] came to the remoter areas of the Somerset Levels, making use of "island" sites. [[Glastonbury Abbey]], possibly founded in the 7th century (or earlier), was nearby and had undertaken extensive water management to enable it to bring materials by boat to Glastonbury, albeit not via the Parrett. Muchelney Abbey, founded in the mid-8th century,<ref name="williams-2">{{Harvnb|Williams|1970|pp=6–24}}</ref> was sited at the confluence of the Parrett and its tributaries, the rivers [[River Isle|Isle]] and Yeo; and [[Athelney Abbey]] lay on another tributary, the [[River Tone]].<ref name="hollinrakes"/> These three abbeys together with the [[Bishop of Bath and Wells]] were major landowners with fishing and [[Riparian zone|riparian]] rights, often conflicting, on these rivers. They gained financially from improvements to land and waterways due to the resulting greater fertility of their lands and the increased [[renting|rents]] that they were able to charge their tenants.<ref name="hollinrakes"/><ref name="williams-3"/>

[[File:Southlakemoor.jpg|alt=Photograph from elevation of flooded river flowing between snow-covered fields. Hills in the distance.|thumb|right|The flooded [[Southlake Moor]] in the winter of 1985]]

Continuing land reclamation and control of the Parrett was a long-running cycle of neglect followed by improvement. Work was carried out on the upper River Parrett basin in the [[Middle Ages]] by Glastonbury Abbey.<ref name="williams-3">{{Harvnb|Williams|1970|pp=25–81}}</ref> Abbot Michael's survey of 1234 showed {{convert|722|acre}} of [[meadow]] recovered around the "island" of Sowy; from the accounts in the Abbey's rent books, this had increased to {{convert|972|acre}} by 1240.<ref name="williams-3"/> Flooding of adjacent moor land was partially addressed in the 13th century by building a number of embankment walls to contain the Parrett. These included Southlake Wall, Burrow Wall and Lake Wall.<ref name="williams-3"/> The River Tone was also diverted by the Abbot of Athelney and other land owners into a new embanked channel, joining the Parrett upstream from its original confluence.<ref name="hollinrakes"/><ref name="williams-3"/> After the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries|dissolution of the monasteries]] in the 16th century, much of the former abbey lands came under the control of the Crown, particularly [[King's Sedgemoor]], which had been wholly owned by Glastonbury Abbey, with [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI's]] Courts of Sewers made responsible for maintaining existing drainage and various Commissions made responsible for land improvements.<ref name="williams-4"/> Further reclamation work was carried out over the next 500&nbsp;years. In 1597, {{convert|50|acre}} of land were recovered near the Parrett estuary; a few years later {{convert|140|acre}} near Pawlett were recovered by means of embankments; three further reclamations, totalling {{convert|110|acre}}, were undertaken downstream of Bridgwater by 1660.<ref name="williams-4">{{Harvnb|Williams|1970|pp=82–122}}</ref> Kings [[James VI and I|James I]], [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], and [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] continued to improve King's Sedgemoor.<ref name="williams-4"/>

[[File:Westonzoylandpumpingstation.jpg|alt=Red brick building with tall chimney.|left|thumb|[[Westonzoyland Pumping Station Museum]]]]

Attempts were also made to improve navigation on the lower river. Between 1677 and 1678, Sir John Moulton cut a new channel at "Vikings Creek" on the Horsey Levels to remove a large [[meander]]; the old river bed soon silted up, providing {{convert|120|acre}} of new land.<ref name="williams-4"/><ref name="dunning-252">{{Harvnb|Dunning|1992|page=252}}</ref> A further scheme was proposed in 1723 to improve navigation, shorten the journey time for boats, and recover land by obtaining an [[act of Parliament]]{{which|date=February 2025}} to make an artificial cut across the Steart Peninsula.<ref name="williams-4"/> Eventually, after much debate, the cut was not made due to lack of land owner support and concerns over costs and risks.<ref name="williams-4"/> The [[English Civil War]] put a stop to most reclamation work; however, in 1764 a [[clyse]] was built at [[Dunball]] to contain tidal influences on a run-off stream near King's Sedgemoor.<ref name="williams-4"/> Extensive land recovery was undertaken in the Somerset Levels by land owners between 1770 and the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] in 1815, as part of a general scheme of [[British Agricultural Revolution|agricultural improvements]],<ref name="williams-5">{{Harvnb|Williams|1970|pp=123–168}}</ref> including improvements to the Brue Valley and to King's Sedgemoor.<ref name="williams-5"/> The latter involved the connection of various drainage schemes into a new hand-dug channel connected to the clyse at Dunball&nbsp;– the King's Sedgemoor Drain.<ref name="williams-5"/> Further drainage improvements were needed in the 19th century, which involved the use of mechanical [[Beam engine|pumping engines]], originally steam powered but later powered by electricity.<ref name="williams-7">{{Harvnb|Williams|1970|pp=197–236}}</ref> In January 1940, further improvements were funded by the [[Ministry of Supply]], during the Second World War, as "Priority War Work" during the construction of [[Royal Ordnance Factory]] (ROF) [[ROF Bridgwater|Bridgwater]]. This involved doubling the width of the King's Sedgemoor Drain at its western end and the excavation of the [[River Huntspill]]. In the longer-term this provided a drain for the Brue valley, but in war-time the scheme provided a guaranteed daily supply of {{convert|4500000|impgal|m3}} of water for the ROF.<ref name="williams-8">{{Harvnb|Williams|1970|pp=237–260}}</ref>

The town of [[Bridgwater]], from ''Brigewaltier'' (place at) the bridge held by [[Walter of Douai]],<ref>{{harvnb|Mills|1998|p=54}}</ref> or alternatively "Brugie" from Old English ''brycg'' meaning gang plank between ships, or from [[Old Norse]] ''brygja'' meaning quay,<ref>{{harvnb|Dunning|1992b|p=4}}</ref> was founded as a new [[borough]] about 1200; it had a castle and a market and became a port in its own right.<ref name="rippon-234-237">{{Harvnb|Rippon|1997|pages=234–237}}</ref> It was the major port for Somerset which, around the [[Quantock Hills|Quantocks]], the [[Brendon Hills]] and the Tone valley, was mainly agricultural, producing [[arable land|arable]] crops and vegetables to supply the new industrial towns.<ref name="Hussey-4-5">{{Harvnb|Hussey|2000|pages=4–5}}</ref> Combwich was the traditional River Parrett [[Maritime pilot|pilots']] harbour from at least the 14th century.<ref name="rippon-234-237"/><ref name="Hussey-10">{{Harvnb|Hussey|2000|page=10}}</ref> It also served as a port for the export of local produce and, from the 15th century, the import of timber. Until the late 1930s, when the creek silted up, coastal shipping served Combwich's local brick and coal yard.<ref name="somharbours-117-118">{{Harvnb|Farr|1954|pages=117–118}}</ref>

In the medieval era the river was used to transport [[Hamstone]] from the quarry at [[Ham Hill, Somerset|Ham Hill]] for the construction of churches throughout the county.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gerrard |first=Christopher M. |year=1985 |title=Ham Hill Stone: A medieval distribution pattern from Somerset |journal=Oxford Journal of Archaeology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=105–116 |doi= 10.1111/j.1468-0092.1985.tb00234.x }}</ref> Later, in the 19th century, coal from south Wales, for heating, [[Bath brick]]s, bricks and [[tile]]s would be carried.<ref name="farr-111-112">{{Harvnb|Farr|1954|pages=111–112}}</ref> Brick making, which had been carried out intermittently in Bridgwater from the 17th century, by the late 18th century had expanded into an industry based on permanent brickyards in the Bridgwater area adjacent to the Parrett.<ref name="murless-5-13">{{harvnb|Murless|2000|pages=5–13}}</ref> The brick and tile industry made use of the local alluvial clays and the Parrett's coastal trade, using [[ketch]]es mostly based at Bridgwater to transport their products, which were heavy and bulky, and to bring in coal to heat the [[kiln]]s.<ref name="murless-5-13"/> The 19th century [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]] opened up mass markets leading to further expansion of the industry, particularly beginning in 1850 when the duty (tax) on bricks was abolished.<ref name="murless-5-13"/> Brick and tile works, making use of river transport, were opened in the 1840s and 1850s south of Bridgwater at North Petherton and Dunwear, in Bridgwater itself, and downstream at Chilton Trinity, Combwich, [[Puriton]] and Pawlett.<ref name="murless-5-13"/><ref name="waite">{{harvnb|Waite|1964|p=118}}</ref> Numerous brickworks were also opened elsewhere in Somerset, but many of them used the railways to transport their products; some 264 sites are listed in the Somerset Industrial Archaeological Society's ''Gazetteer of sites''.<ref name="murless-g">{{harvnb|Murless|2000|pages=32–54}}</ref> Silt was also dredged from the river over a {{convert|2|mi|km|adj=on}} stretch between Somerset Bridge and Castle Fields, Bridgwater, to make Bath bricks, an early abrasive cleaning material patented in 1827.<ref name="Hawkins 1982 36"/><ref name="murless-13">{{harvnb|Murless|2000|page=13}}</ref>