Editing Richard I of England (section)

==King and crusader==
{{Further|Government in Norman and Angevin England}}

===Coronation and anti-Jewish violence===
[[File:Richard Löwenhez, Salbung zum König.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Richard I being anointed during his coronation in [[Westminster Abbey]] in 1189, from a 13th-century chronicle]]
{{Anchor|Attacks on Jews}}
Richard I was officially invested as [[Duke of Normandy]] on 20 July 1189 and crowned king in [[Westminster Abbey]] on 3 September 1189.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=107}}</ref> Tradition barred all Jews and women from the investiture, but some Jewish leaders arrived to present gifts for the new king.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|pp=94–95}} According to Ralph of Diceto, Richard's courtiers stripped and flogged the Jews, then flung them out of court.<ref name=FloriF_95>{{Harvnb|Flori|1999f|p=95}}</ref>

When a rumour spread that Richard had ordered all Jews to be killed, the people of London attacked the Jewish population.<ref name=FloriF_95/> Many Jewish homes were destroyed by [[arson]]ists, and several Jews were [[forcibly converted]].<ref name=FloriF_95/> Some sought sanctuary in the [[Tower of London]], and others managed to escape. Among those killed was [[Jacob of Orléans]], a respected Jewish scholar.<ref>{{Harvnb|Graetz|Bloch|1902}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Roger of Howden, in his ''{{Lang|la|Gesta Regis Ricardi}}'', claimed that the jealous and bigoted citizens started the rioting, and that Richard punished the perpetrators, allowing a forcibly converted Jew to return to his native religion. [[Baldwin of Forde]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], reacted by remarking, "If the King is not God's man, he had better be the [[devil]]'s".<ref>
{{Harvnb|Flori|1999f|pp=465–466}} As cited by Flori, the chronicler Giraud le Cambrien reports that Richard was fond of telling a tale according to which he was a descendant of a countess of Anjou who was, in fact, the fairy Melusine, concluding that his family "came from the devil and would return to the devil".
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[[File:Silver penny of Richard I (YORYM 2000 2147) obverse.jpg|thumb|Silver penny of Richard I, York Museums Trust]]

Offended that he was not being obeyed, and aware that the attacks could destabilise his realm on the eve of his departure on crusade, Richard ordered the execution of those responsible for the most heinous murders and persecutions, including rioters who had accidentally burned down Christian homes.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|pp=319–320}} He distributed a royal [[writ]] demanding that the Jews be left alone. The edict was only loosely enforced, however, and the following March further violence occurred, including a [[history of the Jews in England (1066–1290)#Massacres at London and York (1189–1190)|massacre at York]].<ref name=Graetz1902_40916>{{Harvnb|Graetz|Bloch|1902|pages=409–416}}</ref>

===Crusade plans===
Richard had already taken the cross as Count of Poitou in 1187. His father and Philip II had done so at Gisors on 21 January 1188 after receiving news of the fall of [[Jerusalem]] to [[Saladin]]. After Richard became king, he and Philip agreed to go on the Third Crusade, since each feared that during his absence the other might usurp his territories.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|p=100}}

Richard swore an oath to renounce his past wickedness in order to show himself worthy to take the cross. He started to raise and equip a new crusader army. He spent most of his father's treasury (filled with money raised by the [[Saladin tithe]]), raised taxes, and even agreed to free King William I of Scotland from his oath of subservience to Richard in exchange for {{Formatnum:10000}} [[mark (currency)|marks]] (£{{Formatnum:6500}}). To raise still more revenue he sold the right to hold official positions, lands, and other privileges to those interested in them.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|pp=97–101}} Those already appointed were forced to pay huge sums to retain their posts. [[William Longchamp]], [[Bishop of Ely]] and the King's chancellor, made a show of bidding £{{Formatnum:3000}} to remain as Chancellor. He was apparently outbid by a certain Reginald the Italian, but that bid was refused.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}

Richard made some final arrangements on the continent.<ref name=FloriF_101>{{Harvnb|Flori|1999f|p=101}}</ref> He reconfirmed his father's appointment of [[William Fitz Ralph]] to the important post of [[seneschal]] of Normandy. In Anjou, [[Stephen of Tours]] was replaced as seneschal and temporarily imprisoned for fiscal mismanagement. Payn de Rochefort, an Angevin knight, became [[seneschal of Anjou]]. In Poitou the ex-provost of Benon, Peter Bertin, was made seneschal, and finally, the household official Helie de La Celle was picked for the seneschalship in Gascony. After repositioning the part of his army he left behind to guard his French possessions, Richard finally set out on the crusade in summer 1190.<ref name=FloriF_101/> (His delay was criticised by [[troubadour]]s such as [[Bertran de Born]].) He appointed as regents [[Hugh de Puiset]], [[Bishop of Durham]], and [[William de Mandeville, 3rd Earl of Essex]]{{snd}}who soon died and was replaced by William Longchamp.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|p=99}} Richard's brother John was not satisfied by this decision and started scheming against William Longchamp. When Richard was raising funds for his crusade, he was said to have declared, "I would have sold London if I could find a buyer".{{Sfn|Gillingham|2002|p=118}}

===Occupation of Sicily===
[[File:Philippe Auguste et Richard IIIe croisade.jpg|thumb|Richard and Philip of France, French manuscript of 1261. [[Bibliothèque nationale de France|Bibliothèque Nationale de France]].]]
In September 1190 Richard and Philip arrived in [[Sicily]].{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|p=111}} After the death of King [[William II of Sicily]] in 1189 his cousin [[Tancred, King of Sicily|Tancred]] had seized power, although the legal heir was William's aunt [[Constance I of Sicily|Constance]], wife of [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor]]. Tancred had imprisoned William's widow, Queen Joan, who was Richard's sister, and did not give her the money she had inherited in William's will. When Richard arrived he demanded that his sister be released and given her inheritance; she was freed on 28 September, but without the inheritance.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|p=114}} The presence of foreign troops also caused unrest: in October, the people of [[Messina]] revolted, demanding that the foreigners leave.<ref name=FloriuF116>{{Harvnb|Flori|1999f|p=116}}</ref> Richard attacked Messina, capturing it on 4 October 1190.<ref name=FloriuF116/> After looting and burning the city Richard established his base there, but this created tension between Richard and Philip. He remained there until Tancred finally agreed to sign a treaty on 4 March 1191. The treaty was signed by Richard, Philip, and Tancred.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|p=117}} Its main terms were:
* Joan was to receive {{Convert|20000|oz|kg}} of gold as compensation for her inheritance, which Tancred kept.
* Richard officially proclaimed his nephew, [[Arthur of Brittany]], son of Geoffrey, as his heir, and Tancred promised to marry one of his daughters to Arthur when he came of age, giving a further {{Convert|20000|oz|kg}} of gold that would be returned by Richard if Arthur did not marry Tancred's daughter.

The two kings stayed in Sicily for a while, but this resulted in increasing tensions between them and their men, with Philip plotting with Tancred against Richard.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|pp=124–126}}  The two kings eventually met to clear the air and reached an agreement, including the end of Richard's betrothal to Philip's sister Alys.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|pp=127–128}} In 1190 King Richard, before leaving for the Holy Land for the crusade, met [[Joachim of Fiore]], who spoke to him of a prophecy contained in the [[Book of Revelation]].

===Conquest of Cyprus===
{{main|Conquest of Cyprus by Richard I}}
[[File:Map Crusader states 1190-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|The Near East in 1190 (Cyprus in purple)]]

In April 1191, Richard left Messina for [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] with an army of 17,000 men,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Phillips |first=Jonathan |title=The Crusades, 1095–1204 |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |edition=2nd |location=London |pages=170}}</ref> but a storm dispersed his large fleet.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|p=131}} After some searching, it was discovered that the ship carrying his sister Joan and his new fiancée, [[Berengaria of Navarre]], was anchored on the south coast of [[Cyprus in the Middle Ages|Cyprus]], along with the wrecks of several other vessels, including the treasure ship. Survivors of the wrecks had been taken prisoner by the island's ruler, [[Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus|Isaac Komnenos]].<ref name=FloriF_132>{{Harvnb|Flori|1999f|p=132}}</ref>

On 1 May 1191, Richard's fleet arrived in the port of [[Lemesos]] on Cyprus.<ref name=FloriF_132/> He ordered Isaac to release the prisoners and treasure.<ref name=FloriF_132/> Isaac refused, so Richard landed his troops and took Lemesos.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|pp=133–134}} Various princes of the Holy Land arrived in Lemesos at the same time, in particular [[Guy of Lusignan]]. All declared their support for Richard provided that he support Guy against his rival, [[Conrad of Montferrat]].{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|p=134}}

The local magnates abandoned Isaac, who considered making peace with Richard, joining him on the crusade, and offering [[Damsel of Cyprus|his daughter]] in marriage to the person named by Richard.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|pp=134–136}} Isaac changed his mind, however, and tried to escape. Richard's troops, led by Guy de Lusignan, conquered the whole island by 1 June. Isaac surrendered and was confined with silver chains because Richard had promised that he would not place him in irons. Richard named [[Richard de Camville]] and [[Robert of Thornham]] as governors. He later sold the island to the master of [[Knights Templar]], [[Robert IV of Sablé|Robert de Sablé]], and it was subsequently acquired, in 1192, by Guy of Lusignan and became a stable feudal kingdom.<ref name=FloriF_137>{{Harvnb|Flori|1999f|p=137}}</ref>

The rapid conquest of the island by Richard was of strategic importance. The island occupies a key strategic position on the maritime lanes to the Holy Land, whose occupation by the Christians could not continue without support from the sea.<ref name=FloriF_137/> Cyprus remained a Christian stronghold until the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573)|Ottoman invasion]] in 1570.<ref name=FloriF_138>{{Harvnb|Flori|1999f|p=138}}</ref> Richard's exploit was well publicised and contributed to his reputation, and he also derived significant financial gains from the conquest of the island.<ref name=FloriF_138/> Richard left Cyprus for Acre on 5 June with his allies.<ref name=FloriF_138/>

===Marriage===

Before leaving Cyprus on crusade, Richard married Berengaria, the first-born daughter of King [[Sancho VI of Navarre]]. Richard had first grown close to her at a tournament held in her native [[Navarre]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Abbott|first1=Jacob|title=History of King Richard the First of England|publisher=Harper & Brothers|year=1877|asin=B00P179WN8|edition=3rd|author-link=Jacob Abbott}}</ref> The wedding was held in Lemesos on 12 May 1191 at the Chapel of St George and was attended by Richard's sister Joan, whom he had brought from Sicily. The marriage was celebrated with great pomp and splendour, many feasts and entertainments, and public parades and celebrations followed, commemorating the event. When Richard married Berengaria he was still officially betrothed to Alys, and he pushed for the match in order to obtain the [[Kingdom of Navarre]] as a fief, as Aquitaine had been for his father. Further, Eleanor championed the match, as Navarre bordered Aquitaine, thereby securing the southern border of her ancestral lands. Richard took his new wife on crusade with him briefly, though they returned separately. Berengaria had almost as much difficulty in making the journey home as her husband did, and she did not see England until after his death. After his release from German captivity, Richard showed some regret for his earlier conduct, but he was not reunited with his wife.<ref>''Richard I''. by Jacob Abbot, New York and London Harper & Brothers 1902</ref> The marriage remained childless.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}

===In the Holy Land===
[[File:Britishmuseumrichardandsaladintiles.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|Depiction of Richard (left) and [[Saladin]] (right), {{Circa|1250–60}}, on tiles found at [[Chertsey Abbey]] in Surrey.]]
Richard landed at Acre on 8 June 1191.<ref>According to [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad]] on the 7th, but the ''Itinerarium'' and ''Gesta'' mention the 8th as the date of his arrival (L. Landon, ''The itinerary of King Richard I, with studies on certain matters of interest connected with his reign'', London, 1935, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=JzcIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA50 50]</ref> He gave his support to his Poitevin [[vassal]] Guy of Lusignan, who had brought troops to help him in Cyprus. Guy was the widower of his father's cousin [[Sibylla of Jerusalem]] and was trying to retain the kingship of Jerusalem, despite his wife's death during the [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)|Siege of Acre]] the previous year.<ref name="Gillingham 2002 148">{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=148}}</ref> Guy's claim was challenged by Conrad of Montferrat, second husband of Sibylla's half-sister, [[Isabella I of Jerusalem|Isabella]]: Conrad, whose defence of Tyre had saved the kingdom in 1187, was supported by Philip of France, son of his first cousin Louis VII of France, and by another cousin, [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria]].<ref name="Gillingham 2002 148-9">{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|pp=148–149}}</ref> Richard also allied with [[Humphrey IV of Toron]], Isabella's first husband, from whom she had been forcibly divorced in 1190. Humphrey was loyal to Guy and spoke Arabic fluently, so Richard used him as a translator and negotiator.<ref name="Gillingham 2002 149">{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=149}}</ref>

Richard and his forces aided in the capture of Acre, despite Richard's serious illness. At one point, while sick from ''arnaldia'', a disease similar to [[scurvy]], he picked off guards on the walls with a [[crossbow]], while being carried on a stretcher covered "in a great silken quilt".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hosler |first1=John D. |title=Siege of Acre, 1189–1191: Saladin, Richard the Lionheart, and the Battle That Decided the Third Crusade |date=2018 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-3002-3535-7 |page=119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SspfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 |access-date=16 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Asbridge |first1=Thomas |title=The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land |date=2012 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-8498-3770-5 |page=294 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rK8nA9U0OE4C&pg=PT294 |access-date=16 September 2020}}</ref> Eventually, Conrad of Montferrat concluded the surrender negotiations with Saladin's forces inside Acre and raised the banners of the kings in the city. Richard quarrelled with Leopold over the deposition of Isaac Komnenos (related to Leopold's [[Byzantine]] mother) and his position within the crusade. Leopold's banner had been raised alongside the English and French standards. This was interpreted as arrogance by both Richard and Philip, as Leopold was a vassal of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] (although he was the highest-ranking surviving leader of the imperial forces). Richard's men tore the flag down and threw it in the moat of Acre.<ref>''[[Richard Coer de Lyon]]'' II vv. 6027–6028: ''Kyng R. let breke his baner, / And kest it i''n''to þe reuer.''</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Huffman |first=Joseph Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTaw3wmnlo8C&pg=PA138 |title=The Social Politics of Medieval Diplomacy: Anglo-German Relations (1066–1307) |year=2009 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-02418-6 |pages=138 |language=en}}</ref> Leopold left the crusade immediately. Philip also left soon afterwards, in poor health and after further disputes with Richard over the status of Cyprus (Philip demanded half the island) and the kingship of Jerusalem.<ref name="Gillingham 2002 154">{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=154.}}</ref> Richard, suddenly, found himself without allies.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}

Richard had kept approximately 2,700 Muslim prisoners as hostages against Saladin fulfilling all the terms of the surrender of the lands around Acre.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|pp=167–171.}}</ref> Philip, before leaving, had entrusted his prisoners to Conrad, but Richard forced him to hand them over to him. Richard feared his forces being bottled up in Acre, and believed that his troops could not advance with the prisoners in train. He therefore ordered [[massacre at Ayyadieh|all the prisoners to be executed]]. He then moved south, defeating Saladin's forces at the [[Battle of Arsuf]], {{Convert|30|mi|km|-1}} north of [[Jaffa]], on 7 September 1191. Saladin attempted to harass Richard's army into breaking its formation in order to defeat it in detail. Richard maintained his army's defensive formation, however, until the [[Hospitallers]] broke ranks to charge the right wing of Saladin's forces. Richard then ordered a general counterattack, which won the battle. Arsuf was an important victory. The Muslim army was not destroyed, despite the considerable casualties it suffered, but it did [[rout]]; this was considered shameful by the Muslims and boosted the morale of the Crusaders. In November 1191, following the fall of Jaffa, the Crusader army advanced inland towards Jerusalem. The army then marched to [[Beit Nuba]], only {{convert|12|mi}} from Jerusalem. Muslim morale in Jerusalem was so low that the arrival of the Crusaders would probably have caused the city to fall quickly. However, the weather was appallingly bad, cold with heavy rain and hailstorms; this, combined with the fear that the Crusader army, if it besieged Jerusalem, might be trapped by a relieving force, led to the decision to retreat back to the coast.{{Sfn|Gillingham|1979|pp=198–200}} Richard attempted to negotiate with Saladin, but this was unsuccessful. In the first half of 1192, he and his troops refortified [[Ascalon]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}

An election forced Richard to accept Conrad of Montferrat as King of Jerusalem, and he sold Cyprus to his defeated protégé, Guy. Only days later, on 28 April 1192, Conrad was stabbed to death by the [[Order of Assassins|Assassins]]<ref>Eddé, Anne-Marie "Saladin" trans. Jean Marie Todd Harvard University Press 2011. p. 266 {{ISBN|978-0-6740-5559-9}} "two members of the Assassin Sect, disguised as monks"</ref> before he could be crowned. Eight days later Richard's own nephew [[Henry II of Champagne]] was married to the widowed Isabella, although she was carrying Conrad's child. The murder was never conclusively solved, and Richard's contemporaries widely suspected his involvement.<ref>Wolff, Robert L., and Hazard, H. W. (1977). ''A History of the Crusades: Volume Two, The Later Crusades 1187–1311, The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison''. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 80.</ref>

The crusader army made another advance on Jerusalem, and, in June 1192, it came within sight of the city before being forced to retreat once again, this time because of dissension amongst its leaders. In particular, Richard and the majority of the army council wanted to force Saladin to relinquish Jerusalem by attacking the basis of his power through an invasion of [[Ayyubid Egypt|Egypt]]. The leader of the French contingent, [[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy]], however, was adamant that a direct attack on Jerusalem should be made. This split the Crusader army into two factions, and neither was strong enough to achieve its objective. Richard stated that he would accompany any attack on Jerusalem but only as a simple soldier; he refused to lead the army. Without a united command the army had little choice but to retreat back to the coast.{{Sfn|Gillingham|1979|pp=209–212}}

A period of minor skirmishes with Saladin's forces commenced, punctuated by another defeat in the field for the Ayyubid army at the [[Battle of Jaffa (1192)|Battle of Jaffa]]. Baha' al-Din, a contemporary Muslim soldier and biographer of Saladin, recorded a tribute to Richard's martial prowess at this battle: "I have been assured ... that on that day the king of England, lance in hand, rode along the whole length of our army from right to left, and not one of our soldiers left the ranks to attack him. The Sultan was wroth thereat and left the battlefield in anger...".<ref>Baha' al-Din Yusuf Ibn Shaddad (also rendered Beha al-Din and Beha Ed-Din), trans. C.W. Wilson (1897) ''Saladin Or What Befell Sultan Yusuf'', Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, London.[https://archive.org/stream/libraryofpalesti13paleuoft#page/n3/mode/2up], p. 376</ref> Both sides realised that their respective positions were growing untenable. Richard knew that both Philip and his own brother John were starting to plot against him, and the morale of Saladin's army had been badly eroded by repeated defeats. However, Saladin insisted on the razing of Ascalon's fortifications, which Richard's men had rebuilt, and a few other points. Richard made one last attempt to strengthen his bargaining position by attempting to invade Egypt – Saladin's chief supply-base – but failed. In the end, time ran out for Richard. He realised that his return could be postponed no longer, since both Philip and John were taking advantage of his absence. He and Saladin finally came to a settlement on 2 September 1192. The terms provided for the destruction of Ascalon's fortifications, allowed Christian [[pilgrim]]s and merchants access to Jerusalem, and initiated a three-year truce.<ref>''Richard I''. by Jacob Abbott, New York and London Harper & Brothers 1902</ref> Richard, being ill with ''arnaldia'', left for England on 9 October 1192.<ref>Eddé, Anne-Marie "Saladin" trans. Jean Marie Todd Harvard University Press 2011. pp. 267–269. {{ISBN|978-0-6740-5559-9}}</ref>