Editing Public speaking (section)

== History ==
{{See also|Rhetoric}}

=== India ===
{{See also|Ancient Indian rhetoric}}
The literature of [[Ancient India]] is richly endowed with contributions to the development of a ''sui generis'' theory of rhetoric.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gangal |first1=Anjali |last2=Hosterman |first2=Craig |date=1982 |title=Toward an examination of the rhetoric of ancient India |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10417948209372534 |journal=Southern Speech Communication Journal |language=en |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=277–291 |doi=10.1080/10417948209372534 |issn=0361-8269}}</ref> In ancient India, around [[7th century BC|700 BCE]], public debates by Indian rhetors on the topic of religion were a popular form of entertainment.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=George A. |title=Comparative Rhetoric: An Historical and Cross-Cultural Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0195109333 |location=New York |pages=171–190}}</ref> The [[Vedic chant|Vedic hymns]], composed over three millennia ago, demonstrate a refined sense of rhetoric possessed by the intellectual stratum of the society, as seen in their effective employment of similes.<ref name=":03" />

[[Ramayana|The Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata|the Mahabharata]], India's iconic epics, provide valuable insights into the country's ancient rhetorical traditions, featuring numerous speeches and debates that employ sophisticated systems of categorization.<ref name=":03" /> [[Upanishads|The Upanishads]], a seminal work of Vedic philosophical dialogues, exhibit a thoughtful approach to categorizing technical terms, underscoring the value of clear classification.<ref name=":03" /> The famed [[Hindus|Hindu]] discourse known as the [[Bhagavad Gita]] (in the Mahabharata) serves as a classic example of [[deliberative rhetoric]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sloane |first=Thomas O. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eslMAgAAQBAJ&dq=Sloane,%20Thomas%20O.%20(&pg=PA385 |title=Encyclopedia of Rhetoric |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-512595-5 |pages=385 |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Buddhist philosophy|Buddhist tradition of India]] places emphasis on the value of engaging in calm and humorous discourse.<ref name=":03" />

=== China ===
In [[History of China|Ancient China]], the use of rhetoric was delayed, largely because the country then lacked rhetoricians who could train students.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Pei-Ling |first=Lee |date=October 2020 |title=The Application of Chinese Rhetoric to Public Speaking. |journal=China Media Research |volume=16 |issue=4}}</ref> It was understood that [[Chinese Rhetoric|Chinese rhetoric]] was part of Chinese philosophy, which schools taught focusing on two concepts: "Wen" (rhetoric); and "Zhi" (thoughtful content).<ref name=":10" /> Ancient Chinese rhetoric shows strong connections with modern public speaking, as Chinese rhetoric placed a high value on ethics.<ref name=":10" />

Ancient Chinese rhetoric had three objectives: (i) using language to reflect people's feelings; (ii) using language to be more pointed, effective, and impactful; and (iii) using rhetoric as an "aesthetic tool."<ref name=":10" /> Chinese rhetoric traditionally focused more on the written than the spoken word, but both share similar characteristics of construction.<ref name=":10" />

A unique and key difference between Chinese and Western rhetoric is the audience targeted for persuasion.<ref name=":10" /> In Chinese rhetoric, state rulers were the audience, whereas Western rhetoric targets the public.<ref name=":10" /> Another difference between Chinese and Western rhetoric practices is how a speaker establishes credibility or [[Ethos]].<ref name=":10" /> In Chinese rhetoric, the speaker does not focus on individual credibility, like Western rhetoric. Instead, the speaker focuses on collectivism<ref name=":10" /> by sharing personal experiences and establishing a connection between the speaker's concern and the audience's interest.<ref name=":10" />

Chinese employs three standards in assessing public rhetoric:<ref name=":10" />

* '''Tracing''': This standard evaluates how well the speaker is doing compared to traditional speaking practices.
* '''Examination''': This standard evaluates how well the speaker considers the audience's daily lives.
* '''Practice''': This standard evaluates how relevant the topic or argument is to the "state, society, and people."

=== Greece ===
{{Communication}}[[File:Arringatore.jpg|thumb|''[[The Orator]]'', a {{circa|100 BCE}} [[Etruscan art|Etrusco]]-[[Roman sculpture|Roman]] [[bronze sculpture]] depicting Aule Metele, an [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] man wearing a Roman [[toga]] while engaged in rhetoric. The statue features an inscription in the [[Etruscan alphabet]].]]

Although evidence of public speaking training exists in [[ancient Egypt]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Womack |first1=Morris M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=obsSAQAAMAAJ&q=egypt |title=Speech for Foreign Students |last2=Bernstein |first2=Elinor |date=1990 |publisher=C.C. Thomas |isbn=978-0-398-05699-5 |location=Springfield, IL |page=140 |quote=Some of the earliest written records of training in public speaking may be traced to ancient Egypt. However, the most significant records are found among the ancient Greeks. |access-date=June 12, 2017}}</ref> the first known writing on oratory<ref>Murphy, James J.  [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Demosthenes-Greek-statesman-and-orator "Demosthenes – greatest Greek orator".] ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.</ref> is 2,000 years old from [[ancient Greece]]. This work elaborates on principles drawn from the practices and experiences of ancient Greek orators.

[[Aristotle]], one of the first oratory teachers to use definitive rules and models, believed that successful speakers combined, to varying degrees, three qualities in their speech: reasoning, which he called Logos; credentials, which he called Ethos; and emotion, which he called Pathos.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heinrichs |first=Jay. |date=2008 |title=[[Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion|Thank You For Arguing]] |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0593237380 |page=39 |quote=Aristotle called them logos, ethos, and pathos, and so will I because the meanings of the Greek versions are richer than those of the English versions}}</ref> Aristotle's work became an essential part of a [[liberal arts]] education during the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]]. The [[classical antiquity]] works by the ancient Greeks capture how they taught and developed the art of public speaking thousands of years ago.

In classical Greece and Rome, rhetoric was the main component of [[Composition studies|composition]] and speech delivery, both critical skills for use in public and private life. In ancient Greece, citizens spoke for themselves rather than having professionals, such as modern lawyers, speak for them. Any [[citizen]] who wished to succeed in court, politics, or social life had to learn public speaking techniques. Rhetorical tools were first taught by a group of teachers called [[Sophists]], who taught paying students how to speak effectively using their methods.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sophists |url=https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Sophists/336904 |access-date=2023-08-17 |website=Britannica Kids |language=en-US}}</ref>

Separately from the Sophists, [[Socrates]], [[Plato]], and Aristotle developed their theories of public speaking, teaching these principles to students interested in learning rhetorical skills. Plato founded [[Platonic Academy|The Academy]] and Aristotle founded [[Aristotles Lyceum|The Lyceum]] to teach these skills.<ref>{{Citation |last=Vogt |first=Katja |title=Ancient Skepticism |date=2022 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2022/entries/skepticism-ancient/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |access-date=2023-11-24 |edition=Winter 2022 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref>

[[Demosthenes]] was a well-known orator from Athens. After his father died when he was 7, he had three legal guardians: Aphobus, Demophon, and Theryppides.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|last=May|first=James|date=2004|title=Demosthenes|url=https://online.salempress.com/home.do|access-date=December 12, 2020|website=Salem Press|series=Great Lives from History: The Ancient World, Prehistory-476 c.e.}}</ref> His inspiration for public speaking came from learning that his guardians had robbed him of the money his father left for his education.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Demosthenes (Greek orator) {{!}} World History: A Comprehensive Reference Set - Credo Reference |url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/fofworld/demosthenes_greek_orator/0|access-date=2020-12-13 |website=search.credoreference.com}}</ref> His first public speech was in the court proceeding he brought against his three guardians.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Gale Power Search - Document - Demosthenes & Cicero|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GPS&u=lincclin_pbcc&id=GALE%7CA496345849&v=2.1&it=r&sid=GPS&asid=2130019c|access-date=2020-12-13|website=go.gale.com}}</ref> After that, Demosthenes continued to practice public speaking. He is known for sticking pebbles into his mouth to improve his pronunciation, talking while running so that he would not lose his breath, and practicing speaking in front of a mirror to improve his delivery.<ref name=":2" />

When Philip II, the ruler of Macedon, tried to conquer the Greeks, Demosthenes made a speech called ''Kata Philippou A.'' In this speech, he spoke about why he opposed Philip II as a threat to all of Greece.<ref name=":02" /> This was the first of several speeches known as the Philippics.<ref name=":2" /> He made other speeches known as the [[Olynthiacs]]. Both series of speeches favored independence and rallied Athenians against Philip II.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":12" />

=== Rome ===
[[File:Cicero Denounces Catiline in the Roman Senate by Cesare Maccari.png|thumb|A portrait of [[Cicero]], an orator during the [[Roman Empire]], addressing the [[Roman Senate]], depicted in ''Cicero Denounces Catiline'', an 1889 fresco by [[Cesare Maccari]]]]

During the political rise of the [[Roman Republic]], Roman orators copied and modified the ancient Greek techniques of public speaking. Instruction in rhetoric developed into a full curriculum, including instruction in grammar (study of the poets), preliminary exercises ([[progymnasmata]]), and preparation of public speeches (declamation) in both [[Forensic linguistics|forensic]] and [[Deliberative rhetoric|deliberative]] genres.

In [[Latin]], rhetoric was heavily influenced by [[Cicero]], an orator during the [[Roman Empire]], and emphasized a broad education in all areas of the [[humanities]]. Other areas of rhetorical study included the use of wit and humor, the [[Pathos|appeal to the listener's emotions]], and the use of [[digression]]s. Oratory in the [[Roman empire|Roman Empire]], though less central to political life than during the Republic, remained important in law and entertainment. Famous orators were celebrities in ancient Rome, becoming wealthy and prominent in society.

The ornate Latin style was the primary form of oration through the mid-20th century. After [[World War II]] and the increased use of film and television, the Latin oration style began to fall out of favor. This cultural change likely had to do with the rise of the [[scientific method]] and the emphasis on a "plain" style of speaking and writing. Even today's formal oratory is much less ornate than in the Classical Era.