Editing Porus (section)

== Rule ==

=== Background ===
[[File:Physical Map of Punjab.jpg|thumb|A detailed physical map of the Punjab region. The major rivers of the region including the Jhelum (Hydaspes) and Chenab (Acesines) are visible.]]

Porus ruled over the tracts between the rivers Hydaspes (Jhelum) and Acesines (Chenab); Strabo noted the territory to contain almost 300 cities.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Bosworth|first=Albert Brian|title=Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1993|pages=125–130|chapter=The Campaign of the Hydaspes}}</ref> He had a hostile relationship with the neighboring polity of [[Taxila]], having assassinated their erstwhile ruler Ambhiraj, his maternal uncle.<ref name=":6" />

When Alexander crossed the Indus in their eastward [[Wars of Alexander the Great|invasion]], probably in [[Udabhandapura]], he was greeted by the then-ruler of Taxila, [[Taxiles|Omphis]], son of Ambhiraj.<ref name=":6" /> Years ago, he had visited Alexander in [[Sogdiana]] and was treated as an ally; Omphis' rule was confirmed and gifts lavished, but a Macedonian [[satrap]] was installed.<ref name=":6" /> Omphis hoped to force both Porus and [[Abisares]] into submission, leveraging the might of Alexander's forces, and dispatched diplomatic missions to this effect.<ref name=":6" />

In response, Abisares offered submission but Porus refused, leading Alexander to seek a face-off on the bank of Jhelum.<ref name=":6" /> Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC; the exact site remains unknown and the exact strength of the armies cannot be determined either, due to major discrepancies between sources.<ref name=":6" />

=== Battle of the Hydaspes ===
{{main| Battle of the Hydaspes}}
[[File:Le Brun, Alexander and Porus.jpg|thumb|400px|right|A painting by [[Charles Le Brun]] depicting Alexander and Porus during the [[Battle of the Hydaspes]]]]
Alexander re-used the same vessels which were used for crossing the Indus, the first time, some 300&nbsp;km away at [[Hund (village)|Udabhandapura]].<ref name=":6" /> His forces frequently mounted intrusion-attempts and even before the battle had started, skirmishes were reported in the riverine islands.<ref name=":6" />

A few months later, Alexander decided to accompany a strike force across the densely forested headlands and besiege Porus' defense; the base camp with substantial cavalry and infantry units was left under [[Craterus]], who was advised to follow Alexander upon a successful passage whilst the remaining forces were distributed along the river under three phalanx officers to distract Porus' forces.<ref name=":6" /> The strategy was successful and they crossed the Jhelum unobstructed, on a stormy night, just before dawn.<ref name=":6" /> A band of horsemen on chariots led by Porus' son did detect the intrusion and mount a charge but was repelled by Alexander's superior cavalry.<ref name=":6" />

Informed of Alexander's passage, Porus became concerned with tackling those who had already crossed, rather than preventing passage of the remaining majority.<ref name=":6" /> He took a defensive position in the plains, interspersing infantry units with elephants{{Efn|Porus had expected the elephant units to negate charges by Alexander's well-trained cavalry.}} on the front lines and stationing the cavalry and chariots in the wings.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hamilton|first=J. R.|date=1956|title=The Cavalry Battle at the Hydaspes|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/629551|journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies|volume=76|pages=26–31|doi=10.2307/629551|jstor=629551|s2cid=163435999|issn=0075-4269|access-date=13 August 2021|archive-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813123119/https://www.jstor.org/stable/629551|url-status=live}}</ref> Alexander chose to shield his infantry and instead led a devastating cavalry charge on Porus' left wing, forcing reinforcements from the right; however, this rear-transit came under attack by [[Coenus (general)|Coenus]]' cavalry and Porus' cavalry was compelled to take refuge within the infantry frontlines, causing confusion.<ref name=":6" />

This led to an all-out attack from both sides, but Porus' plans proved futile.<ref name=":6" /> According to Heckle (2014), Porus is believed to have had around 30,000 infantry. However, Porus only had 4,000 mounted troops.<ref>Heckel, W. (2012). “Conquest of the Punjab” in ''The Conquests of Alexander the Great'' (Canto Classics, pp. 112–125). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139197076.011</ref> Not only were Porus' cavalry charges repelled but the [[Mahout|''mahouts'']] were killed using ''[[sarissa]]s'' and the elephants were pushed back into Porus' columns, wreaking havoc on the rear, Alexander's cavalry kept charging and inflicting disorder.<ref name=":6" /> Soon Porus' army was surrounded  on all sides, and became easy fodder for Alexander's forces with the cavalry exterminated and most of the elephants captured.<ref name=":6" /> Still, Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed.<ref name=":6" /> A fraction of the infantry successfully escaped and probably planned to regroup but [[Craterus]] pursued them to their deaths.<ref name=":6" />

==== Result ====

The battle resulted in a decisive [[Greeks|Greek]] victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources, who obviously exaggerated.<ref name=":6" /> Alexander held athletic and gymnastic games at the site, and even commissioned two cities in commemoration: [[Nicaea, Punjab|Nicaea]] at the site of his victory and [[Alexandria Bucephalous|''Bucephalous'']] at the battle-ground, in memory of [[Bucephalus|his horse]].<ref name=":6" />{{Efn|Craterus supervised the construction. These cities are yet to be identified.}} Later, decadrachms were minted by the Babylonian mint depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with a ''[[sarissa]]'' and attacking a pair of Indian soldiers atop an elephant.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Holt|first=Frank Lee|title=Alexander the Great and the mystery of the elephant medallions|publisher=University of California Press|year=2003}}</ref>[[File:Surrender of Porus to the Emperor Alexander.jpg|Surrender of Porus to Alexander, 1865 engraving by [[Alonzo Chappel]].|thumb]]

===Aftermath===
[[File:Alexander the Great And King Poros - Opera From Antonio Cesti Burnacini - 1750.jpg|left|thumb|Alexander the Great and King Poros – Opera From Antonio Cesti Burnacini – 1750]]
Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose not to depose him.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Bosworth|first=Albert Brian|title=Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1993|chapter=From the Hydaspes to the Southern Ocean}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Anson|first=Edward M.|title=Alexander the Great: Themes and Issues|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2013|isbn=9781441193797|pages=151}}</ref> His territory was not only restored, but also expanded, with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of [[Glausaes]], who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom.<ref name=":7" /> Further, Omphis was reconciled with Porus.<ref name=":7" />

A [[Expedition of Chenab by Alexander the Great and Porous|joint expedition]] was then mounted against a territory east of the [[Chenab]], ruled by an enemy cousin of Porus; he had earlier submitted to Alexander but, suspicious of Porus' rise in rank, chose to flee with his army.<ref name=":7" /> The date of this battle remains disputed; Alexander's forces overran his lands before meeting stiff resistance at a walled Sangala on the other side of the [[Ravi River|Ravi]].<ref name=":7" /> Siege warfare was executed to brilliant effect and the full-fledged attack began once Porus had joined with his elephants.<ref name=":7" /> As Sangala and allied cities were razed, Porus was allowed to station his garrisons.<ref name=":7" />

Thereafter, Alexander proceeded unopposed to the [[Beas]] and even intended to cross it towards the [[Gangetic Plain]]; however, the [[monsoon]] was at its peak and his weary troops remained stubborn despite his cajoling and threats.<ref name=":7" /> A reluctant Alexander had to renounce his plans and turn back.<ref name=":7" /> Porus was thus ratified as the ''de facto'' ruler of the entire territory east of the Jhelum, with no European ''satrap'' to co-rule with, unlike Ambhi and Abisares.<ref name=":7" /> The crossing-back of the Jhelum was a prolonged affair; filled with festivities, it attracted thousands.<ref name=":7" />

===Death===

After [[Death of Alexander the Great|the death of Alexander the Great]] in 323 BC, [[Perdiccas]] became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas' murder in 321 BC, [[Antipater]] became the new regent.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Heckel|first=Waldemar|title=Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire|publisher=Wiley|year=2006|isbn=9781405112109}}</ref> According to [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]], Antipater recognized Porus' authority over the territories along the [[Indus River]]. However, [[Eudemus (general)|Eudemus]], who had served as Alexander's [[satrap]] in the Punjab region, killed Porus.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Irfan Habib |author1-link=Irfan Habib |author2=Vivekanand Jha |title=Mauryan India |series=A People's History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nUvGQgAACAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Aligarh Historians Society / [[Tulika Books]] |isbn=978-81-85229-92-8 |page=16 }}</ref>