Editing Portuguese Timor (section)

===Detachment of Portuguese Timor from Portuguese India===
In 1844 Timor, along with Macau, become administratively separated from Goa. In 1866 Timor was placed under the control of Macau, and officially divided into 11 districts. Effective control however remained with local rulers throughout this period, and development remained limited to Dili.<ref name="Villiers1994"/>{{rp|91}} Coffee production continued to expand, becoming especially prominent in the north coast near Dili, such as in [[Liquiçá]], Motael, and [[Hatulia Administrative Post|Hatulia]].<ref name="Villiers1994"/>{{rp|93}}

[[File:José Joaquim Lopes de Lima.jpg|thumb|upright|Portuguese Governor {{ill|José Joaquim Lopes de Lima|de}}, who without authorisation agreed on new borders with Dutch authorities.]]
Conflicts with the Dutch continued throughout this period, entwined with shifting loyalties of local rulers. This led to three treaties being signed to define [[East Timor–Indonesia border|the border]], in 1851, 1854, and 1859. Through these, Portugal ceded its remaining territory and claims on Flores and the Solor islands, while the Netherlands ceded [[Maubara]] and [[Citrana]] to Portugal, and dropped its claim on [[Atauro]].<ref name="Villiers1994"/>{{rp|87–88}} The 1851 treaty which included these territorial arrangements was initiated by Portuguese Governor {{ill|José Joaquim Lopes de Lima|de}}, who sought negotiations with officials in Kupang and [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] shortly after his arrival to Timor in 1851. This was done without consulting authorities in Portugal, who upon hearing about the deal thought it too favourable to the Dutch. Lisbon revoked Timor's autonomy, and Lopes de Lima fled to Batavia rather than return to Portugal. The 1854 border treaty was rejected by the [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|Dutch House of Representatives]], who felt it did not protect religious liberty.<ref name="Kammen2015ch2"/>{{rp|54–55}} The final 1859 [[Treaty of Lisbon (1859)|Treaty of Lisbon]] stood in place until 1913, when the Portuguese and Dutch formally agreed to split the island between them.<ref name="Schwartz199">Schwartz (1994), p. 199.</ref> The definitive border was established by the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] in 1914 and ratified in 1916; it remains the international boundary between East Timor and Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite book|title=International Law in Historical Perspective|last=Verzijl|first=J.H.W.|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|year=1973|pages=488}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Deeley |first=Neil |title=The International Boundaries of East Timor |year=2001 |pages=8}}</ref>

The 1859 border treaty was not implemented all at once, with local transfers out of sync with the official ratification in August 1860. Rebellions against Portuguese rule broke out to the east and west of Dili in 1861.<ref name="Kammen2015ch2"/>{{rp|58–59}} This revolt saw forces from Laclo and Ulmera lay siege to Dili. The Portuguese sought assistance from other kingdoms, and managed to suppress the revolt. Further military battles occurred over succeeding years, until 1888 when the thirteen kingdoms of the island's east swore fealty to Portugal. This did not however secure Portuguese control over the whole territory, as kingdoms in other areas remained effectively autonomous.<ref name="Damaledo2018ch2"/>

Coffee soon became the territory's primary export, to the point where some sandalwood forest recovered. There was a small renaissance in the sandalwood trade in the 1850s, including wood smuggled across the border in order to obtain valuable [[Netherlands Indies gulden|Dutch currency]]. This collapsed in the 1860s, as new sources elsewhere depressed prices. Then Governor {{ill|Afonso de Castro|pt}} shifted the focus of exports to coffee. Efforts began to regrow sandalwood forests at the same time, a four decade process. However, success was hindered by insufficient knowledge of the trees' biology, which require other tree species to obtain nutrients.<ref name="Villiers1994"/>{{rp|89–91, 93}}

For the Portuguese, their colony of Portuguese Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post until the late nineteenth century. Investment in infrastructure, health, and education was minimal. Sandalwood remained the main export crop with coffee exports becoming significant in the mid-nineteenth century. In places where Portuguese rule was asserted, it tended to be brutal and exploitative.<ref name="Schwartz198"/>

[[José Celestino da Silva]] became Governor in 1894 and sought to establish "full and effective control" in the colony in line with international norms arising from the [[Berlin Conference]].<ref name="Kammen2015ch5">{{cite book |last1=Kammen |first1=Douglas |title=Three Centuries of Conflict in East Timor |date=20 August 2015 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=9780813574127 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGZ0CgAAQBAJ |chapter=High Colonialism and New Forms of Oppression, 1894-1974 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGZ0CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 |access-date=20 October 2022 |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021002513/https://books.google.com/books?id=WGZ0CgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|97}} The autonomy and persistent rebellions of many kingdoms was viewed as an embarrassment, a view influenced by rebellions in Africa and the humiliation of the [[1890 British Ultimatum]].<ref name="Damaledo2018ch2"/> While at first proposing to sell the colony due to its underdevelopment, da Silva quickly shifted towards reforms, and sought complete autonomy from Macau.<ref name="Villiers1994"/>{{rp|94}} The first military campaign in 1895 headed west to Obulo and Marobo. Those rebelling held off this force with the support of their allies, leading to 6,000 reinforcements being sent in April. After quashing the revolt in Obulo, the commander marched the troops further without permission from Dili, and his forces were defeated and he was killed. This killing increased the desire of Portugal to properly control the territory, and to da Silva began further brutal campaigns alongside local allies. Some kingdoms were completely wiped out, with leaders and populations either dead or displaced to Dutch-controlled territory.<ref name="Damaledo2018ch2"/>

Da Silva's campaign continued west to east, assisted by local allies. A new administrative structure was imposed in some areas alongside direct taxation of residents, bypassing traditional rulers. New restrictions were placed on the [[Hakka people|Hakka Chinese]], with greater government control over economic activities and taxes. Basic infrastructure such as roads were created, as well as some funding for schools,<ref name="Kammen2015ch5"/>{{rp|98–99}} although it remained very limited.<ref name="Lundhal2019"/>{{rp|269, 273}} In the north, land was prepared for coffee cultivation.<ref name="Kammen2015ch5"/>{{rp|98–99}} Such land was often directly seized or purchased under duress, with land rights often going to Portuguese. Locals were required to work on these plantations.<ref name="Kammen2015ch5"/>{{rp|104}} Traditional cultural practices were discouraged, as was identification with specific local kingdoms, both of which weakened traditional rulers.<ref name="Kammen2015ch5"/>{{rp|108}} In 1897 Timor was separated from Macau.<ref name="Villiers1994"/>{{rp|91}} The military campaigns meant that Portugal had established effective control even of the island's interior.<ref name="Damaledo2018ch2"/>

Portuguese authorities created an administrative structure based on the existing kingdoms, while also creating a new level of administration under them, the ''suco''. This new level was created around villages, or groups of villages linked by kinship. These new administrative boundaries thus reflected family ties, and strengthened family power as villages gained administrative power. This created a permanent shift of powers from the level of the kingdom to that of the villages. Da reduced the power of local kings, and even eliminated smaller and more disloyal kingdoms. Implementation of the head tax required a census, and depended on the loyalty of the local leaders who would be responsible for collection. He also sought to impose a [[Poll tax|head tax]] which collected tax from each household, necessitating a census of the territory to count these households. The head tax was imposed by Silva's successor, Eduardo Augusto Marques, once the census was complete. The needs of the census meant power at this time also flowed to leaders of ''aldeias'', a smaller unit that ''sucos'' whose leaders were responsible for some tax collection and were given formal military ranks.<ref name="Scambary2021">{{cite book |chapter=Geographies of Power: Implementing Community Driven Development in Urban Dili, Timor-Leste |title=Rural–Urban Dichotomies and Spatial Development in Asia |author1=James Scambary |author2=Joana de Mesquita Lima |series=New Frontiers in Regional Science: Asian Perspectives |volume=48 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-16-1232-9_12 |date=2 July 2021 |pages=275–295|doi=10.1007/978-981-16-1232-9_12 |isbn=978-981-16-1231-2 }}</ref>{{rp|279}}