Editing Politics of Indonesia (section)

===Reform era===
{{further|Post-Suharto era}}
[[Image:IndonesianElections.gif|thumb|left|300px|Map showing the parties/organisations with the largest vote share per province in Indonesia's elections from 1971 to 2019]]
The '''Post-Suharto era''' began with the [[fall of Suharto]] in 1998 during which Indonesia has been in a period of transition, an era known as ''Reformasi'' (English: ''Reform''<ref>''US Indonesia Diplomatic and Political Cooperation Handbook'', Int'l Business Publications, 2007, {{ISBN|1433053306}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zvfZnRoC_YQC&pg=RA1-PA102 page CRS-5]{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>Robin Bush, ''Nahdlatul Ulama and the Struggle for Power Within Islam and Politics in Indonesia'', Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009, {{ISBN|9812308768}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ssg0aiSEyy0C&pg=PA111 page 111]</ref><ref>Ryan Ver Berkmoes, ''Lonely Planet Indonesia'', 2010, {{ISBN|1741048303}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4GMBFsaFNN4C&pg=PA49 page 49]</ref>). This period has seen a more open and liberal political-social environment.

Indonesia's transition to democracy was a key part of the broader reform era.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Hara |first1=Abubakar E. |title=The Difficult Journey of Democratization in Indonesia |journal=Contemporary Southeast Asia |date=August 2001 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=307–326 |jstor=25798548}}</ref> Democratic transitions tend to be grouped into two categories: bottom-up transitions where people rise up and overthrow an existing regime, and top-down transitions where an authoritarian ruler introduces liberalizing reforms leading to democratic transition.<ref>Clark et al, Foundations of Comparative Politics, 2018</ref> Indonesia experienced a transition toward democratic rule that involved both bottom-up and top-down forces after the fall of the authoritarian regime in 1998, thus altering the political structure of the country.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal |last1=Abdulbaki |first1=Louay |title=Democratisation in Indonesia: From Transition to Consolidation |journal=Asian Journal of Political Science |date=2008 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=151–172 |doi=10.1080/02185370802204099 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249042179}}</ref> Differences in democratization across developing countries, including Indonesia, is common and may be explained by different theoretical models.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geddes |first1=Barbara |title=What Do We Know About Democratization After Twenty Years? |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |date=June 1999 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=115–144 |doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.2.1.115}}</ref> While Indonesia has been considered a democracy since the fall of the authoritarian regime in 1998, democratic consolidation has not completely been achieved.<ref>Liddel, “Improving the Quality of Democracy in Indonesia”, 2002</ref>

A process of constitutional reform lasted from 1999 to 2002, with four amendments producing major changes.{{sfn|Indrayana|2008|pages=360-361}} Among these were [[term limit]]s of up to two five-year terms for the president and [[Vice President of Indonesia|vice president]] and measures to institute [[Separation of powers|checks and balances]]. The highest state institution is the [[People's Consultative Assembly]] ({{langx|id|Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat}}, MPR), whose functions previously included electing the president and vice-president (since 2004 the president has been elected directly by the people), establishing broad guidelines of state policy, and amending the constitution. The 695-member MPR includes all 550 members of the [[House of Representatives (Indonesia)|House of Representatives]] ({{langx|id|Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat}}, DPR) plus 130 members of [[Regional Representative Council]] ({{langx|id|Dewan Perwakilan Daerah}}, DPD) elected by the 26 provincial parliaments and 65 appointed members from societal groups.{{sfn|Indrayana|2008|pages=361-362}}

The DPR, which is the premier legislative institution, originally included 462 members elected through a mixed proportional/district representational system and thirty-eight appointed members of the [[Indonesian Armed Forces]] (TNI) and [[Indonesian National Police|police]] (POLRI). TNI/POLRI representation in the DPR and MPR ended in 2004. Societal group representation in the MPR was eliminated in 2004 through further constitutional change.{{sfn|Indrayana|2008|pages=293-296}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/DH16Ae06.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020819185214/http://atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/DH16Ae06.html|url-status=unfit|archive-date=19 August 2002|title=Indonesia's military: Business as usual|date=16 August 2002}}</ref> Having served as rubberstamp bodies in the past, the DPR and MPR have gained considerable power and are increasingly assertive in oversight of the executive branch. Under constitutional changes in 2004, the MPR became a [[bicameral legislature]], with the creation of the DPD, in which each province is represented by four members, although its legislative powers are more limited than those of the DPR. Through his/her appointed cabinet, the president retains the authority to conduct the administration of the government.{{sfn|Indrayana|2008|pages=265,361,441}}

A general election in June 1999 produced the first freely elected national, provincial and regional parliaments in over 40 years. In October 1999, the MPR elected a compromise candidate, [[Abdurrahman Wahid]], as the country's fourth president, and [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]]—a daughter of Sukarno—as the vice-president. Megawati's [[Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle|PDI-P]] party had won the largest share of the vote (34%) in the general election, while [[Golkar]], the dominant party during the New Order, came in second (22%). Several other, mostly Islamic parties won shares large enough to be seated in the DPR. Other nationwide democratic elections took place in 2004, 2009, 2014, and 2019.
[[Image:Indonesian Political System.svg|350px|thumb|left|The Indonesian political system before and after the constitutional amendments]]

In Indonesia, while free and fair elections have been held and a constitution guaranteeing certain rights and freedoms exists, corruption and involvement of money in politics persists.<ref>Indonesia Investments web page</ref> Corruption in regional government is often revenue-related, involving bribery and theft of public goods for personal gain, and identifies political corruption, such as fraudulent behavior and deviant lobbying techniques, as the type committed by government officials.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ibrahim |first1=Risnaldi |last2=Yusoff |first2=Mohammad Agus |last3=Koling |first3=Huma Magridoni |title=Patterns and Causes of Corruption Among Government Officials in Indonesia |journal=Adabi: Journal of Public Administration and Business |date=July 2018 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=74–91 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327630207 |access-date=21 May 2024}}</ref> Additionally, one of the primary reasons Indonesia may not be considered a consolidated democracy is due to their lack of “civilian control over the military”.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Indonesia has created democratic institutions, but there is still progress that must be made to address the challenges the country currently faces in order to consolidate democracy.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

After the Reformasi, Indonesia became a [[patronage]] democracy, where state resources are distributed among political parties. While patronage weakens democratic institutions and accountability, it serves as a powerful incentive for compromise and cooperation. Parties get into governing coalitions regardless of ideology to access state resources. This cut across identity-based cleavages. President [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]]'s leadership contained social conflict by mediating between conflicting forces and accommodating potential opposition. Yudhoyono's presidency was a period of democratic stagnation but also of peace, stability, and absence of [[political polarization]]. The [[2014 Indonesian presidential election]] marked a rise of polarization, with an [[Islamist]]-[[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralist]] divide, which continued in the [[2017 Jakarta gubernatorial election]] and the [[2019 Indonesian presidential election]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Warburton |first1=Eve |editor1-last=Carothers |editor1-first=Thomas |editor2-last=O'Donohue |editor2-first=Andrew |title=Democracies Divided: The Global Challenge of Political Polarization |date=2019 |publisher=[[Brookings Institution Press]] |isbn=978-0-8157-3722-3 |pages=201–227 |chapter=Polarization and Democratic Decline in Indonesia}}</ref>

Currently, scholars are conflicted about the strength and durability of Indonesia's democracy. Indonesia scores well on certain characteristics of democracy, such as political rights, classifying it as a democracy in the [[Democracy|minimalist]] interpretation of the word.<ref name=":0" /> However, the country lacks other aspects of democracy that are usually required for a regime to reach [[democratic consolidation]], such as adequate [[civil rights]] protections.<ref name=":0" />

A [[Democracy|minimalist]] view of democracy classifies political regimes purely in terms of their institutions and procedures rather than the outcomes they produce. Specifically, a regime must implement [[free and fair election]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Binder 1 Francois 2 Trebbi 3 |first=Chris 1 Patrick 2 Francesco 3 |date=October 2014 |title=A Theory of Minimalist Democracy |url=https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w20552/w20552.pdf |journal=National Bureau of Economic Research |pages=1–51 |access-date=4 March 2023 |archive-date=4 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304023110/https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w20552/w20552.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In Indonesia, the president is directly elected and can serve up to two five-year terms.<ref name=":0" /> There are limited voting irregularities, and international election monitors consider the elections free and fair. Additionally, in 2019, the Constitutional Court rejected claims of widespread [[voter fraud]]. The right to organize competing political parties is respected, and the system allows for the competition of several political parties.<ref name=":0" /> Thus, according to the minimalist definition, Indonesia is a democracy.

However, a [[Democracy|maximalist]] approach to democracy claims that free and fair elections are insufficient to consider a regime a democracy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bachheimer |first=Christian |date=2021-06-12 |title=Consolidating Indonesia's deteriorating democracy |url=https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2021/06/12/consolidating-indonesia-deteriorating-democracy/ |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=East Asia Forum |language=en |archive-date=4 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304023111/https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2021/06/12/consolidating-indonesia-deteriorating-democracy/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Maximalists argue that these countries must also guarantee other social, political, and economic rights, often those found in [[Democratic consolidation|consolidated democracies]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Kendall-Taylor |first1=Andrea |url=https://www.oxfordpoliticstrove.com/display/10.1093/hepl/9780198820819.001.0001/hepl-9780198820819-chapter-2 |title=2. Defining Democracy |last2=Lindstaedt |first2=Natasha |last3=Frantz |first3=Erica |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-186051-5 |language=en-US |doi=10.1093/hepl/9780198820819.003.0002}}</ref> These include [[human rights]] protections, [[civil rights]], [[egalitarianism]], [[judicial independence]], and more.<ref name=":1" />