Editing Philippines (section)

=== Spanish and American colonial rule (1565–1934) ===
{{main|History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|History of the Philippines (1898–1946)}}

[[File:Vista del Puente de Manila (1847).png|alt=See caption|thumb|[[Manila]], 1847]]
Unification and colonization by the [[Crown of Castile]] began when Spanish explorer [[Miguel López de Legazpi]] arrived from [[New Spain]] in 1565.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wing |first=J.T. |title=Roots of Empire: Forests and State Power in Early Modern Spain, c.1500–1750 |publisher=Brill |series=Brill's Series in the History of the Environment |year=2015 |isbn=978-90-04-26137-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 109] |quote=At the time of Miguel López de Legazpi's voyage in 1564-5, the Philippines were not a unified polity or nation. |access-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-date=January 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128213911/https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Carson |first1=Arthur L. |title=Higher Education in the Philippines |series=Bulletin |date=1961 |issue=29 |url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf |publisher=[[Office of Education]], [[United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |oclc=755650 |page=7 |access-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413085104/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf |archive-date=April 13, 2015}}</ref><ref name="deBorja-2005">{{cite book |last=de Borja |first=Marciano R. |url=https://b-ok.cc/book/2577458/ffb6ff |title=Basques In The Philippines |series=The Basque Series |date=2005 |publisher=[[University of Nevada Press]] |location=Reno, Nev. |isbn=978-0-87417-590-5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326224340/https://b-ok.cc/book/2577458/ffb6ff |archive-date=March 26, 2022 |access-date=April 25, 2023}}</ref>{{rp|pages=20–23}} Many [[Filipinos]] were brought to New Spain [[History of Spanish slavery in the Philippines|as slaves]] and forced crew,<ref>{{cite book |last=Seijas |first=Tatiana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ |title=Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians |series=Cambridge Latin American Studies |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2014 |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-107-06312-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36] |chapter=The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=February 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213113750/https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> whereas many [[Latin American Asian|Latin Americans]] were brought to the Philippines as soldiers and colonists.<ref>[https://pares.mcu.es/ParesBusquedas20/catalogo/description/431623 "Orden de enviar hombres a Filipinas desde México" (Consejo de Indias España)](English Translation from Spanish original: "Royal Decree to the Count of Coruña, Viceroy of New Spain, informing him that, according to information from Captain Gabriel de Rivera who came from the Philippines, on a journey made by Governor Gonzalo Ronquillo to the Cagayan River some Spaniards were lost, and that to make up for this lack and populate these islands it was necessary to take up to two hundred men to them. The viceroy is ordered to attend to this request and send them from New Spain, in addition to another two hundred that were entrusted to him from Lisbon."</ref> The Philippines hosts the only Latin American established districts in Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=West Coast of the Island Of Luzon {{pipe}} Tourist Attractions |url=http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/travel-guides/getting-to-philippines/979-tourist-attraction-city-of-manila |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161206200644/http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/travel-guides/getting-to-philippines/979-tourist-attraction-city-of-manila |archive-date=December 6, 2016 |access-date=December 6, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Colonial Latin Asia? The case for incorporating the Philippines and the Spanish Pacific into colonial Latin American studies|first=Kristie|last=Patricia Flannery|date=April 3, 2023|journal=Colonial Latin American Review|volume=32|issue=2|pages=235–242|doi=10.1080/10609164.2023.2205233|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Intramuros|Spanish Manila]] became the capital of the [[Captaincy General of the Philippines]] and the [[Spanish East Indies]] in 1571,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Beaule |editor-first1=Christine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ |title=The Global Spanish Empire: Five Hundred Years of Place Making and Pluralism |editor-last2=Douglass |editor-first2=John G. |date=April 21, 2020 |publisher=[[University of Arizona Press]] |location=Tucson, Ariz. |isbn=978-0-8165-4084-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 204] |language=en |access-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321081230/https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Santiago |first=Fernando A. Jr. |year=2006 |title=Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–1898 |trans-title=A Short History of Pandacan, Manila 1589–1898 |url=https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7887 |url-status=live |journal=Malay |language=fil |publisher=[[De La Salle University]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=70–87 |issn=2243-7851 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821002744/https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7887 |archive-date=August 21, 2020 |access-date=July 18, 2008 |via=Philippine E-Journals}}</ref> Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.<ref>{{cite book |last=Andrade |first=Tonio |url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/ |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han colonialization in the Seventeenth Century |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-12855-1 |year=2005 |chapter=Chapter 4: La Isla Hermosa: The Rise of the Spanish Colony in Northern Taiwan |author-link=Tonio Andrade |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121160327/http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html |archive-date=November 21, 2007 |via=Gutenberg-e}}</ref> The Spanish invaded local states using the principle of [[divide and rule|divide and conquer]],<ref name="Guillermo-2012" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA374|name=374}}}} bringing most of what is the present-day Philippines under one unified administration.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Giráldez |first1=Arturo |title=The Age of Trade: The Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy |date=March 19, 2015 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-4422-4352-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402112011/https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Acabado |first=Stephen |date=March 1, 2017 |title=The Archaeology of Pericolonialism: Responses of the "Unconquered" to Spanish Conquest and Colonialism in Ifugao, Philippines |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt3tp1p8m3/qt3tp1p8m3.pdf?t=qa7wdn |journal=[[International Journal of Historical Archaeology]] |publisher=[[Springer New York]] |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1007/s10761-016-0342-9 |s2cid=254541436 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106150313/https://escholarship.org/content/qt3tp1p8m3/qt3tp1p8m3.pdf?t=qa7wdn |archive-date=November 6, 2020 |via=Springer Link}}</ref> Disparate barangays were deliberately [[Reductions|consolidated into towns]], where [[Friars in Spanish Philippines|Catholic missionaries]] could more easily convert their inhabitants to [[Christianity]],<ref name="Abinales-2005">{{cite book |last1=Abinales |first1=Patricio N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC |title=State and Society in the Philippines |last2=Amoroso |first2=Donna J. |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-1024-1 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073346/https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA53|name=53}}, {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA68|name=68}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Constantino |first1=Renato |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ |title=A History of the Philippines: From the Spanish Colonization to the Second World War |last2=Constantino |first2=Letizia R. |publisher=[[Monthly Review Press]] |location=New York, N.Y. |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-85345-394-9 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 58–59] |author-link1=Renato Constantino |access-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073504/https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> which was initially [[Religious Syncretism|Syncretist]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schumacher |first1=John N. |title=Syncretism in Philippine Catholicism: Its Historical Causes |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |date=1984 |page=254 |url=http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054 |issn=2244-1093 |oclc=6015358201 |jstor=42632710 |author-link1=John N. Schumacher |access-date=October 5, 2023 |archive-date=October 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006144446/http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Christianization]] by the [[Friars in Spanish Philippines|Spanish friars]] occurred mostly across the settled lowlands over the course of time. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the [[Mexico City]]-based Viceroyalty of New Spain; it was then administered from [[Madrid]] after the [[Mexican War of Independence]].<ref name="Halili-2004">{{cite book |last=Halili |first=Maria Christine N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC |title=Philippine History |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |year=2004 |edition=First |isbn=978-971-23-3934-9 |access-date=May 23, 2020 |archive-date=December 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230123021/https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA81|name=81}}}} Manila became the western hub of [[Spanish treasure fleet|trans-Pacific trade]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Kane |first=Herb Kawainui |title=Hawaiʻ Chronicles: Island History from the Pages of Honolulu Magazine |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8248-1829-6 |editor-last=Bob Dye |volume=I |pages=25–32 |chapter=The Manila Galleons |author-link=Herb Kawainui Kane}}</ref> by [[Manila galleon]]s built in [[Bicol Region|Bicol]] and [[Cavite]].<ref>{{cite report |type=Conference proceeding |last=Bolunia |first=Mary Jane Louise A. |chapter=Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon |chapter-url=http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf |title=Proceedings of the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference; Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region |url=http://www.themua.org/collections/collections/show/13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413233643/http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf |archive-date=April 13, 2015 |access-date=October 26, 2015 |publisher=Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Planning Committee |page=1 |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |oclc=892536655 |via=The Museum of Underwater Archaeology}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=McCarthy |first=William J. |date=December 1, 1995 |title=The Yards at Cavite: Shipbuilding in the Early Colonial Philippines |journal=[[International Journal of Maritime History]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=149–162 |doi=10.1177/084387149500700208 |s2cid=163709949}}</ref>

During its rule, Spain nearly bankrupted its treasury quelling [[Philippine revolts against Spain|indigenous revolts]]<ref name="Halili-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA111|name=111–122}}}} and defending against external military attacks,<ref name="Ooi-2004">{{cite book |editor-last1=Ooi |editor-first1=Keat Gin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |date=2004 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-57607-770-2 |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-date=January 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116094029/https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}}<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Closmann |editor-first=Charles Edwin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36 |title=War and the Environment: Military Destruction in the Modern Age |date=2009 |publisher=[[Texas A&M University Press]] |location=College Station, Tex. |isbn=978-1-60344-380-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36 36] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306102727/https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36 |url-status=live}}</ref> including [[Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas|Moro piracy]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Klein |editor-first1=Bernhard |editor-last2=Mackenthun |editor-first2=Gesa |title=Sea Changes: Historicizing the Ocean |date=August 21, 2012 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-135-94046-1 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC&pg=PA63 63–66] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC |access-date=August 11, 2023 |language=en |archive-date=August 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811080240/https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC |url-status=live}}</ref> a 17th-century [[Battles of La Naval de Manila|war against the Dutch]], 18th-century [[British occupation of Manila]], and conflict with Muslims in the south.<ref name="Dolan-1991">{{cite book |date=1991 |editor-last=Dolan |editor-first=Ronald E. |title=Philippines |series=Country Studies/Area Handbook Series |url=https://countrystudies.us/philippines/41.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051109092341/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/ |archive-date=November 9, 2005 |access-date=February 13, 2023 |via=Country Studies |publisher=[[U.S. Government Publishing Office|GPO]] for the [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref>{{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927161256/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/4.htm|name=4}}}}{{undue weight inline|date=August 2023|reason=Article assertions here may be [[WP:UNDUE]] in not considering impact of the [[Seven Year War]] on the Spanish treasury – I'm not enough of a historian to judge.}}

Administration of the Philippines was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain,<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}} and abandoning it or trading it for other territory was debated. This course of action was opposed because of the islands' economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the region.<ref name="Newson" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|name=7–8}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Crossley |first=John Newsome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ |title=Hernando de los Ríos Coronel and the Spanish Philippines in the Golden Age |date=July 28, 2013 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-4094-8242-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA168 168–169] |access-date=January 13, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124615/https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> The colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}} averaging 250,000 pesos,<ref name="Newson" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8|name=8}}}} usually paid as 75 tons of silver bullion from the Americas.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cole |first=Jeffrey A. |title=The Potosí Mita, 1573–1700: Compulsory Indian Labor in the Andes |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |location=Stanford, Calif. |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8047-1256-9 |page=20}}</ref> [[British occupation of Manila|British forces occupied Manila]] from 1762 to 1764 during the [[Seven Years' War]], and Spanish rule was restored with the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|1763 Treaty of Paris]].<ref name="deBorja-2005" />{{rp|pages=81–83}} The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the ''[[Reconquista]]''.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Hoadley |editor-first1=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC |title=Asian Security Reassessed |editor-last2=Ruland |editor-first2=Jurgen |date=2006 |publisher=[[Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-230-400-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC&pg=PA215 215] |language=en |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319192304/https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Hefner |editor-first1=Robert W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC |title=Islam in an Era of Nation-States: Politics and Religious Renewal in Muslim Southeast Asia |editor-last2=Horvatich |editor-first2=Patricia |date=September 1, 1997 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-1957-6 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC&pg=PA43 43–44] |language=en |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319192304/https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Spanish–Moro conflict]] lasted for several hundred years; Spain conquered portions of [[Mindanao]] and [[Jolo]] during the last quarter of the 19th century,<ref>{{cite report |last=United States War Department |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g8FMAAAAYAAJ |title=Annual Report of the Secretary of War |volume=III |date=1903 |publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]] |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g8FMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA379 379–398] |author-link=United States Department of War}}</ref> and the Muslim [[Moro people|Moro]] in the [[Sultanate of Sulu]] acknowledged Spanish sovereignty.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warren |first=James Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC |title=The Sulu Zone, 1768–1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State |date=2007 |edition=Second |publisher=[[NUS Press]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-9971-69-386-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC&pg=PA124 124] |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073403/https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ramón de Dalmau y de Olivart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ |title=Colección de los Tratados, Convenios y Documentos Internacionales Celebrados por Nuestros Gobiernos Con los Estados Extranjeros Desde el Reinado de Doña Isabel II Hasta Nuestros Días, Vol. 4: Acompañados de Notas Historico-Criticas Sobre Su Negociación y Complimiento y Cotejados Con los Textos Originales, Publicada de Real Orden |year=1893 |publisher=El Progreso Editorial |location=Madrid, Spain |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA120 120–123] |language=es |access-date=June 27, 2020 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124613/https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Ilustrados 1890.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|alt=Photo of a large group of men on steps. Some are seated, and others are standing; several are wearing top hats.|''[[Ilustrado]]s'' in [[Madrid]] around 1890]]

Philippine ports opened to world trade during the 19th century, and Filipino society began to change.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Castro |first=Amado A. |date=1982 |title=Foreign Trade and Economic Welfare in the Last Half-Century of Spanish Rule |url=https://econ.upd.edu.ph/pre/index.php/pre/article/download/361/274 |journal=Philippine Review of Economics |publisher=[[University of the Philippines School of Economics]] |volume=19 |issue=1 & 2 |pages=97–98 |issn=1655-1516 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |author-link1=Amado Castro |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211184927/https://econ.upd.edu.ph/pre/index.php/pre/article/download/361/274 |archive-date=February 11, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Romero |first1=Ma. Corona S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC |title=Rizal & the Development of National Consciousness |last2=Sta. Romana |first2=Julita R. |last3=Santos |first3=Lourdes Y. |date=2006 |edition=Second |publisher=Katha Publishing Co. |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-574-103-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC&pg=PA25 25] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC |url-status=live}}</ref> Social identity changed, with the term ''Filipino'' encompassing all residents of the archipelago instead of solely referring to [[Spanish Filipino|Spaniards born in the Philippines]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hedman |first1=Eva-Lotta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X_lDpY3vj60C |title=Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories |series=Politics in Asia |last2=Sidel |first2=John |editor-last1=Leifer |editor-first1=Michael |date=2005 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-134-75421-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=X_lDpY3vj60C&pg=PA71 71] |author-link2=John Sidel}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Steinberg |first=David Joel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ |title=The Philippines: A Singular and a Plural Place |date=2018 |series=Nations of the Modern World: Asia |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |location=Boulder, Colo. |isbn=978-0-8133-3755-5 |edition=Fourth |at=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT74 The New Filipinos] |chapter=Chapter 3: A Singular and a Plural Folk |doi=10.4324/9780429494383 |access-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218075805/https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Revolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after 200 locally recruited [[colonial troops]] and laborers alongside [[Gomburza|three activist Catholic priests]] were executed on [[1872 Cavite mutiny|questionable grounds]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Schumacher |first=John N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GU_Tzxu5qoC |title=The Propaganda Movement, 1880–1895: The Creation of a Filipino Consciousness, the Making of the Revolution |date=1997 |edition=Revised |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-209-2 |pages=8–9 |author-link1=John N. Schumacher |access-date=January 15, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073519/https://books.google.com/books?id=6GU_Tzxu5qoC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumacher |first=John N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aaLh8W6_84cC |title=Revolutionary Clergy: The Filipino Clergy and the Nationalist Movement, 1850–1903 |date=1998 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-121-7 |pages=23–30 |author-link1=John N. Schumacher |access-date=January 15, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073446/https://books.google.com/books?id=aaLh8W6_84cC |url-status=live}}</ref> This inspired the [[Propaganda Movement]], organized by [[Marcelo H. del Pilar]], [[José Rizal]], [[Graciano López Jaena]], and [[Mariano Ponce]], which advocated political reform in the Philippines.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Acibo |first1=Libert Amorganda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC |title=Jose P. Rizal: His Life, Works, and Role in the Philippine Revolution |last2=Galicano-Adanza |first2=Estela |date=1995 |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-23-1837-5 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC&pg=PA46 46–47] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144211/https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC |url-status=live}}</ref> Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, for rebellion, and his death radicalized many who had been loyal to Spain.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Owen |editor-first1=Norman G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hVGMjBzBz9cC |title=The Emergence of Modern Southeast Asia: A New History |date=January 1, 2005 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-2841-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hVGMjBzBz9cC&pg=PA156 156] |language=en}}</ref> Attempts at reform met with resistance; [[Andrés Bonifacio]] founded the [[Katipunan]] secret society, which sought independence from Spain through armed revolt, in 1892.<ref name="Halili-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA137|name=137}}}}

The Katipunan [[Cry of Pugad Lawin]] began the [[Philippine Revolution]] in 1896.<ref>{{cite book |last=Borromeo-Buehler |first=Soledad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJnMSmXLvr4C |title=The Cry of Balintawak: A Contrived Controversy: A Textual Analysis with Appended Documents |date=1998 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-278-8 |page=7 |access-date=January 16, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073342/https://books.google.com/books?id=RJnMSmXLvr4C |url-status=live}}</ref> Internal disputes led to the [[Tejeros Convention]], at which Bonifacio lost his position and [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] was elected the new leader of the revolution.<ref name="Duka-2008">{{cite book |last=Duka |first=Cecilio D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC |title=Struggle for Freedom: A Textbook on Philippine History |date=2008 |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-23-5045-0 |access-date=January 16, 2021 |archive-date=September 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923144103/https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&pg=PA147|name=145–147}}}} The 1897 [[Pact of Biak-na-Bato]] resulted in the [[Hong Kong Junta]] government in exile. The [[Spanish–American War]] began the following year, and reached the Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] from Spain on June 12, 1898.<ref name="Abinales-2022">{{cite book |last=Abinales |first=Patricio N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ |title=Modern Philippines |series=Understanding Modern Nations |date=July 8, 2022 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4408-6005-8 |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144210/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|name=26}}}} In December 1898, the islands were [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|ceded by Spain]] to the United States with [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Guam]] after the Spanish–American War.<ref>{{cite book |last=Draper |first=Andrew Sloan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ |title=The Rescue of Cuba: An Episode in the Growth of Free Government |date=1899 |publisher=[[Silver Burdett]] |location=New York |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA170 170–172] |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |oclc=9764656 |author-link1=Andrew S. Draper |access-date=February 10, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172545/https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Fantina |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AD0B560nGVIC |title=Desertion and the American Soldier, 1776–2006 |date=2006 |publisher=Algora Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-0-87586-454-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AD0B560nGVIC&pg=PA83 83]}}</ref> [[Spain]] ruled the Philippines for 333 years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Novesteras|first=Arsenio P.|title=Isang Lahi... Isang Mithi|language=Filipino|trans-title=One Race... One Desire|year=2002|location=[[Makati]], Philippines|publisher=Salesiana Publishers, Inc.|isbn=971-522-427-X|pages=28, 137, 184}}</ref>

The [[First Philippine Republic]] was promulgated on January 21, 1899.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Starr |editor-first1=J. Barton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ |title=The United States Constitution: Its Birth, Growth, and Influence in Asia |date=September 1988 |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |location=Hong Kong, China |isbn=978-962-209-201-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA260 260] |access-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124609/https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Lack of recognition by the United States led to an [[Battle of Manila (1899)|outbreak of hostilities]] that, after refusal by the U.S. on-scene military commander of a cease-fire proposal and a declaration of war by the nascent Republic,{{efn|This is a summary, omitting significant detail. For more detail, see {{section link|Schurman Commission|Survey visit to the Philippines}}.}} escalated into the [[Philippine–American War]].<ref name=Nation18990504>{{cite magazine |title=The week |magazine=The Nation |volume=68 |issue=1766 |page=323 |date=May 4, 1899 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8QUDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA323}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Linn |first=Brian McAllister |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ |title=The Philippine War, 1899–1902 |publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]] |year=2000 |location=Lawrence, Kans. |isbn=978-0-7006-1225-3 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ&pg=PA75 75–76] |author-link=Brian McAllister Linn |access-date=December 25, 2018 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073827/https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalaw |first=Maximo Manguiat |title=The Development of Philippine politics (1872–1920) |publisher=Oriental Commercial Company, Inc. |location=Manila |year=1927 |url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afj2233.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext |pages=199–200 |access-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-date=December 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214233312/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/AFJ2233.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last=Paterno|first=Pedro Alejandro|author-link=Pedro Paterno|title=Pedro Paterno's Proclamation of War|work=The Philippine-American War Documents|publisher=MSC Institute of Technology, Inc.|location=San Pablo City, Philippines|date=June 2, 1899|url=http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/pa990602.html|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>

[[File:General Gregorio del Pilar and troops in Pampanga c1898.jpg|thumb|Filipino General [[Gregorio del Pilar]] and his troops in Pampanga around 1898, during the [[Philippine-American War]]]]

The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1&nbsp;million civilians, primarily due to famine and disease.<ref name="Tucker-2009">{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Tucker |editor-first1=Spencer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History |title=Philippine-American War |date=May 20, 2009 |edition=Illustrated |volume=I: A–L |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-85109-951-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC&pg=PA478 478] |language=en |editor-link1=Spencer C. Tucker |access-date=July 25, 2021 |archive-date=September 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923151624/https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC |url-status=live}}</ref> Many Filipinos were transported by the Americans to [[List of concentration and internment camps#Philippines|concentration camps]], where thousands died.<ref>{{cite book |last=Briley |first=Ron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ |title=Talking American History: An Informal Narrative History of the United States |publisher=Sunstone Press |year=2020 |location=Santa Fe, N.M. |isbn=978-1-63293-288-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA247 247] |access-date=December 27, 2022 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172542/https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Cocks |first1=Catherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC |encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of the Progressive Era |series=Historical Dictionaries of U.S. Historical Eras |volume=12 |title=Philippine-American War (1899–1902) |last2=Holloran |first2=Peter C. |last3=Lessoff |first3=Alan |date=March 13, 2009 |publisher=[[The Scarecrow Press]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-0-8108-6293-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC&pg=PA332 332] |access-date=December 27, 2022 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172543/https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC |url-status=live}}</ref> After the fall of the First Philippine Republic in 1902, an [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|American civilian government]] was established with the [[Philippine Organic Act (1902)|Philippine Organic Act]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Gates |first=John M. |title=The U.S. Army and Irregular Warfare |date=November 2002 |chapter=Chapter 3: The Pacification of the Philippines |access-date=February 20, 2010 |chapter-url=http://www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100805061319/http://www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html |archive-date=August 5, 2010 |via=[[College of Wooster]] |oclc=49327571}}</ref> American forces continued to secure and extend their control of the islands, suppressing an attempted [[Tagalog Republic#Sakay|extension of the Philippine Republic]],<ref name="Duka-2008" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&pg=PA200|name=200–202}}}}<ref name="Tucker-2009" /> [[Kiram–Bates Treaty|securing the Sultanate of Sulu]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Abanes |first=Menandro Sarion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ |title=Ethno-religious Identification and Intergroup Contact Avoidance: An Empirical Study on Christian-Muslim Relations in the Philippines |series=Nijmegen Studies in Development and Cultural Change |date=2014 |publisher=[[LIT Verlag|LIT Verlag Münster]] |location=Zürich, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-643-90580-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36] |language=en |access-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Federspiel |first=Howard M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC |title=Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam and Muslims in Southeast Asia |date=January 31, 2007 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-3052-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC&pg=PA120 120] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073948/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC |url-status=live}}</ref> establishing control of interior mountainous areas which had resisted Spanish conquest,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aguilar-Cariño |first1=Ma. Luisa |year=1994 |title=The Igorot as Other: Four Discourses from the Colonial Period |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]] |volume=42 |issue=2 |issn=0031-7837 |pages=194–209 |jstor=42633435}}</ref> and encouraging large-scale resettlement of Christians in once-predominantly-Muslim Mindanao.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Wolff |editor-first1=Stefan |editor-last2=Özkanca |editor-first2=Oya Dursun- |title=External Interventions in Civil Wars: The Role and Impact of Regional and International Organisations |date=March 16, 2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-134-91142-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ |language=en |editor-link1=Stefan Wolff |access-date=March 23, 2023 |archive-date=March 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323163243/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Rogers |editor-first1=Mark M. |editor-last2=Bamat |editor-first2=Tom |editor-last3=Ideh |editor-first3=Julie |title=Pursuing Just Peace: An Overview and Case Studies for Faith-Based Peacebuilders |date=March 24, 2008 |publisher=[[Catholic Relief Services]] |location=Baltimore, Md. |isbn=978-1-61492-030-4 |page=119 |url=https://www.crs.org/publications/showpdf.cfm?pdf_id=56 |access-date=April 25, 2023 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208080127/https://www.crs.org/publications/showpdf.cfm?pdf_id=56 |archive-date=February 8, 2009}}</ref>