Editing Pensacola, Florida (section)

===United States===
{{main|War of 1812|Battle of Pensacola (1814)|Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|Adams–Onís Treaty|Florida Territory|Florida in the American Civil War}}

In the final stages of the [[War of 1812]], American troops launched an [[Battle of Pensacola (1814)|offensive on Pensacola]] against the Spanish and British garrisons protecting the city, which surrendered after two days of fighting. Pensacola was conquered again by the US in 1818. In 1819, Spain and the United States negotiated the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]], by which Spain recognized the American control over Florida in exchange of the American recognition of Spanish control over [[Texas]].<ref name=SRhist1/> A Spanish census of 1820 indicated 181 households in the town, with a third being of [[mixed blood]]. The people were predominantly French and Spanish Creole. Indians in the area were noted through records, travelers' accounts, and paintings of the era, including some by George Washington Sully and [[George Catlin]]. Creek women were also recorded in marriages to Spanish men, in court records or deeds.<ref name="dysart"/>

In 1821, with [[Andrew Jackson]] as provisional governor, Pensacola became part of the United States.<ref name=SRhist1/> The city was officially incorporated as a municipality in 1822.<ref name=PenInc/> The Creek continued to interact with European Americans and African Americans, but the dominant Whites increasingly imposed their binary racial classifications: white and black ("colored", within which were included [[free people of color]], including Indians). However, American Indians and mestizos were identified separately in court and Catholic church records, and as Indians in censuses up until 1840, attesting to their presence in the society. After that, the Creek were not separately identified as Indian, but the people did not disappear. Even after [[Indian removal|removal]] of many [[Seminole]] to Indian Territory, Indians, often of mixed race, but culturally identifying as Muskogean, lived throughout Florida.<ref name="dysart">{{Cite journal |last=Dysart |first=Jane E. |date=1982 |title=Another Road to Disappearance: Assimilation of Creek Indians in Pensacola, Florida, during the Nineteenth Century |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30146156 |journal=The Florida Historical Quarterly |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=37–48 |jstor=30146156 |issn=0015-4113 }}</ref>

St. Michael's Cemetery was established in the 18th century at a location in a south-central part of the city, which developed as the downtown area. Initially owned by the Church of St. Michael, it is now owned and managed by St. Michael's Cemetery Foundation of Pensacola, Inc.<ref name="michael">{{cite web |url=http://www.stmichaelscemetery.org/ |title=St. Michael's Cemetery Foundation of Pensacola, Inc |access-date=August 6, 2008 |archive-date=September 23, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923024711/http://www.stmichaelscemetery.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Preliminary studies indicate that it has over 3,200 marked burials, as well as a large number unmarked.<ref name="michael"/>

Tensions between the White community and Indians tended to increase during the removal era. In addition, an increasing proportion of Anglo Americans, who constituted the majority of Whites by 1840, led to a hardening of racial discrimination in the area.<ref name="dysart"/> Disapproval arose of White men living with women of color, which had previously been accepted. In 1853, the legislature passed a bill prohibiting Indians from living in the state, and provided for capture and removal to Indian Territory.<ref name="dysart"/>
[[File:The photographic history of the Civil War - thousands of scenes photographed 1861-65, with text by many special authorities (1911) (14762797155).jpg|thumb|Confederate battery north of Fort McRee at Pensacola, Florida|160x160px]]

While the bill excluded mixed-race Indians and those already living in White communities, they went "underground" to escape persecution. No Indians were listed in late 19th- and early 20th-century censuses for Escambia County. People of Indian descent were forced into the White or Black communities by appearance, and officially, in terms of records, "disappeared". This pattern was repeated in many Southern settlements. Children of White fathers and Indian mothers were not designated as Indian in the late 19th century, whereas children of Blacks or Mulattos were classified within the Black community, related to laws during the slavery years.<ref name="dysart"/>

Pensacola experienced the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] when in 1861, [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces lost the nearby [[Battle of Santa Rosa Island]] and federal forces of the United States subsequently failed to win the [[Battle of Pensacola (1861)|Battle of Pensacola]]. After the fall of [[New Orleans]] in 1862, the Confederacy abandoned the city and it was occupied by the North.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.museumoffloridahistory.com/exhibits/permanent-exhibits/florida-in-the-civil-war/crisis-pensacola/ |title=Museum of Florida History |website=www.museumoffloridahistory.com |access-date=December 20, 2021 |archive-date=December 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220073223/https://www.museumoffloridahistory.com/exhibits/permanent-exhibits/florida-in-the-civil-war/crisis-pensacola/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 1861, the Pensacola Guards were mustered in as a company in the [[1st Florida Infantry Regiment]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sheppard |first1=Jonathan C. |title=By the noble daring of her sons : the Florida Brigade of the Army of Tennessee |date=2012 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |location=Tuscaloosa, Ala. |isbn=9780817317072 |page=16 }}</ref>
{{Multiple image
| image1       = North Hill line streetcar traveling past state militia encampments, Pensacola streetcar strike 1908.jpg
| image2       = State militiamen posing in front of a Gatling gun, Pensacola streetcar strike 1908.jpg
| total_width  = 420
| caption2     = State militiamen posing in front of a Gatling gun brought in when martial law was declared.
| caption1     = A North Hill line streetcar travels south down Palafox Street past State militia encampments.
| footer       = [[Pensacola streetcar strike of 1908]]
| footer_align = center
}}

In 1907–1908, 116 [[Muscogee|Creeks]] in Pensacola applied for the [[Eastern Cherokee]] enrollment, thinking that all Indians were eligible to enroll. Based on Alabama census records, most of these individuals have been found to be descendants of Creeks who had migrated to the Pensacola area from southern Alabama after Indian removal of the 1830s.<ref name="dysart"/>

In 1908, a [[Pensacola streetcar strike of 1908|citywide streetcar strike occurred in the city]], which led to state militia being stationed in the city and martial law being declared.<ref>{{Cite news |date=April 7, 2017 |title=A century ago, martial law shuttered Pensacola as streetcars were bombed, militia took over city |language=en-US |work=The Pulse |url=https://localpulse.com/2017/04/century-ago-martial-law-shuttered-pensacola-streetcars-bombed-militia-took-city/ |access-date=November 25, 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Flynt |first=Wayne |date=1965 |title=Pensacola Labor Problems and Political Radicalism, 1908 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30140132 |journal=The Florida Historical Quarterly |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=315–332 |jstor=30140132 |issn=0015-4113 }}</ref>