Editing Nilotic peoples (section)

==History==
===Origins===
{{further|History of South Sudan|History of Uganda|History of Kenya|History of Tanzania}}
{{anchor|Origins}}
{{anchor|History}}

A proto-Nilotic unity, separate from an earlier undifferentiated [[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]] unity, is assumed to have emerged by the third millennium BC. The development of the proto-Nilotes as a group may have been connected with their domestication of [[livestock]]. The Eastern Sudanic unity must have been considerably earlier still, perhaps around the fifth millennium BC. The proposed [[Nilo-Saharan]] unity would date to the [[Upper Paleolithic]] about 15 thousand years ago. The original locus of the early Nilotic speakers was presumably east of the Nile in what is now South Sudan. The Proto-Nilotes of the third millennium BC were [[pastoralists]], while their neighbors, the proto-[[Central Sudanic]] peoples, were mostly agriculturalists.{{sfn|Clark|1984|p=31}}

Nilotic people practised a mixed economy of cattle pastoralism, fishing, and seed cultivation.{{sfn|Ogot|1967|pp=40–42}} Some of the earliest archaeological findings on record, that describe a similar culture to this from the same region, are found at [[Kadero (archaeological site)|Kadero]], 48&nbsp;m north of [[Khartoum]] in Sudan and date to 3000&nbsp;BC. Kadero contains the remains of a cattle pastoralist culture and a cemetery with skeletal remains featuring sub-Saharan African phenotypes. It also contains evidence of other animal domestication, artistry, long-distance trade, seed cultivation, and fish consumption.{{sfn|Krzyzaniak|1976|p=762}}{{sfn|Marshall|Hildebrand|2002|pp=99–143}}{{sfn|Gautier|2006}}{{sfn|Krzyzaniak|1978|pp=159–172}}

Genetic and linguistic studies have demonstrated that [[Nubian people]] in Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt are an admixed group that started off as a population closely related to Nilotic people.{{sfn|Hollfelder|Schlebusch|Günther|Babiker|2017|pp=e1006976}}{{sfn|Rilly|2016}} This population later received significant gene flow from [[Middle eastern people|Middle Eastern]] and other East African populations.{{sfn|Hollfelder|Schlebusch|Günther|Babiker|2017|pp=e1006976}} Nubians are considered to be descendants of the early inhabitants of the Nile valley who later formed the [[Kingdom of Kush]], which included [[Kerma]] and [[Meroe]] and the medieval Christian kingdoms of [[Makuria]], [[Nobatia]], and [[Alodia]].{{sfn|Cooper|2017}} These studies suggest that populations closely related to Nilotic people long inhabited the Nile Valley as far as southern Egypt in antiquity.

===Early expansion===
{{see also|Elmenteitan}}
Language evidence indicates an initial southward expansion out of the Nilotic nursery into far southern Sudan beginning in the second millennium BC,
the [[Southern Nilotic]] communities that participated in this expansion eventually reached western Kenya between 1000 and 500 BC.{{sfn|Ehret|1998|p=7}} Their arrival occurred shortly before the introduction of iron to East Africa.{{sfn|Clark|Brandt|1984|p=234}}

===Expansion out of the Lower Wadi Howar===
[[File:ETH-BIB-Nuer-Mädchen im Tanz-Kilimanjaroflug 1929-30-LBS MH02-07-0077.tif|thumb|Nuer women in Sudan, 1930]]
Linguistic studies indicate that the ancestors of the Nilotic peoples resided further north than their present locations. Archaeological evidence from sites in the Lower Wadi Howar reveals the presence of groups that are likely ancestral to both modern Nilotic speakers and [[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]] speakers as a whole.<ref name="Becker 2011">Becker, E. (2011). ''The prehistoric inhabitants of the Wadi Howar''. Germany: Verlag nicht ermittelbar.</ref><ref name="Dimmendaal 2007">Dimmendaal, G. J. (2007). ''Eastern Sudanic and the Wadi Howar and Wadi El Milk diaspora''. University of Cologne.</ref>  Scholars argue that these ancestors inhabited the Lower [[Wadi Howar]] region.<ref name="Dimmendaal 2007"/>

The archaeological findings in the Lower [[Wadi Howar]] reveal significant evidence of cultural continuity and interaction with [[Ancient nubians|ancient Nubian]] cultures, particularly through the association with the herringbone culture.<ref name="Becker 2011"/><ref name="Dimmendaal 2007"/> As aridity increased during the fourth millennium BCE, the importance of cattle in the economic and social life of the region grew, leading to the emergence of distinct cultural practices, including the adoption of pottery styles characterized by incised herringbone patterns. These patterns indicate strong contact with the [[A-Group culture|A-Group]] and [[pre-Kerma]] cultures along the Nubian Nile Valley.<ref>Author. (2013). 'I Hope Your Cattle are Well': Archaeological Evidence for Early Cattle-centred Behaviour in the Eastern Sahara of Sudan and Chad. In M. Bollig, M. Schnegg, & H.-P. Wotzka (Eds.), ''Pastoralism in Africa - Past, Present and Future'' (pp. 66–103). Berghahn Books.</ref> This interaction suggests that communities in the Lower Wadi Howar were actively engaged in trade networks, exchanging livestock and resources with these established cultures, thus integrating into the broader economic and cultural landscape of ancient Nubia. The evidence of cattle burials and the presence of pottery designs reflect a synthesis of local traditions and influences from neighboring cultures, highlighting the dynamic relationships that existed during this period of transformation and trade.

The Nilotic expansion from Central regions of the Sudan like the [[Gezira State|Gezira]] into the rest of South Sudan seems to have begun between the 5th-11th centuries. Some of these later migrations coincided with the collapse of the Christian Nubian kingdoms of Makuria and Alodia and the penetration of Arab traders into central Sudan. From the Arabs, the South Sudanese may have obtained new breeds of humpless cattle.{{sfn|Robertshaw|1987|pp=177–189}} Archaeologist [[Roland Oliver]] notes that the period also shows an [[Iron Age]] beginning among the Nilotic. These factors may explain how the Nilotic speakers expanded to dominate the region.

===Shilluk===
[[File:A group of Shilluk, ca 1860.jpg|thumb|A group of [[Shilluk people|Shilluk]] in around 1860]]
By the 16th century, the most powerful group among the Nilotic speakers were the Cøllø, called Shilluk by Arabs and Europeans, who spread east to the banks of the white Nile under the legendary leadership of Nyikang,{{sfn|Forde|James|1999}} who is said to have ruled Läg Cøllø c from around 1490 to 1517.{{sfn|Mercer|1971|p=410}} The Cøllø gained control of the west bank of the river as far north as [[Kosti, Sudan|Kosti]] in Sudan. There they established an economy based on cattle raising, cereal farming, and fishing, with small villages located along the length of the river.{{sfn|EOPAME: Shilluk|2009}} The Cøllø developed an intensive system of agriculture. The Cøllø lands in the 17th century had a population density similar to that of the Egyptian Nile lands.{{sfn|Singh|2002|p=659}}

One theory is that pressure from the Cøllø drove the Funj people north, who would establish the [[Sultanate of Sennar]].
The Dinka remained in the Sudd area, maintaining their [[transhumance]] economy.{{sfn|EOPAME: Dinka|2009}}

While the Dinka were protected and isolated from their neighbours, the Cøllø were more involved in international affairs. The Cøllø controlled the west bank of the White Nile, but the other side was controlled by the Funj sultanate, with regular conflict between the two. The Cøllø had the ability to quickly raid outside areas by [[war canoe]], and had control of the waters of the Nile. The Funj had a standing army of armoured cavalry, and this force allowed them to dominate the plains of the [[sahel]].

Cøllø traditions tell of Rädh Odak Ocollo who ruled around 1630 and led them in a three-decade war with Sennar over control of the White Nile trade routes. The Cøllø allied with the [[Sultanate of Darfur]] and the Kingdom of [[Takali]] against the Funj, but the capitulation of Takali ended the war in the Funj's favour. In the later 17th century, the Cøllø and Funj allied against the Dinka, who rose to power in the border area between the Funj and Cøllø.{{sfn|Gen Hist Africa: vol. V chap 7|1999|pp=89–103}}

The Cøllø political structure gradually centralized under the a king or ''reth''. The most important is Rädh Tugø (son of Rädh Dhøköödhø) who ruled from ''circa'' 1690 to 1710 and established the Cøllø capital of [[Fashoda]]. The same period had the gradual collapse of the Funj sultanate, leaving the Cøllø in complete control of the White Nile and its trade routes. The Cøllø military power was based on control of the river.{{sfn|Gen Hist Africa: vol. V chap 7|1999|pp=89–103}}

===Southern Nilotic settlement in East Africa===
[[File:Guerrier Luo.JPG|thumb|180px|Luo warrior in Kenya, c. 1902]]
Starting in the mid-19th century, European anthropologists and later Kenyan historians have been interested in the origins of human migration from various parts of Africa into East Africa. One of the more notable broad-based theories emanating from these studies includes the [[Bantu expansion]]. The main tools of study have been linguistics, archaeology and oral traditions.

====Oral traditions====
The significance of tracing individual clan histories in order to get an idea of Kalenjin groups formation has been shown by scholars such as B.E. Kipkorir (1978). He argued that the Tugen first settled in small clan groups, fleeing from war, famine, and disease, and that they arrived from western, eastern, and northern sections. Even a section among the Tugen claims to have come from Mount Kenya.{{sfn|De Vries|2007|p=47}}

The Nandi account on the [[settlement of Nandi]] displays a similar manner of occupation of the Nandi territory. The Kalenjin clans who moved into and occupied the Nandi area, thus becoming the Nandi tribe, came from a wide array of Kalenjin-speaking areas.{{sfn|Huntingford|1953}}

Apparently, spatial core areas existed to which people moved and concentrated over the centuries, and in the process evolved into the individual Kalenjin communities known today by adopting migrants and assimilating original inhabitants.{{sfn|De Vries|2007|p=48}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Samburu krijgers op de Mayer's Farm nabij het Navaisha meer TMnr 20014289.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Samburu people|Samburu]] warriors, 1973]]
For various reasons, slow and multigenerational migrations of Nilotic Luo peoples occurred from South Sudan into Uganda and western Kenya from at least 1000&nbsp;AD, and continuing until the early 20th century.{{sfn|Ogot|1967|pp=41–43}} Oral history and genealogical evidence have been used to estimate timelines of Luo expansion into and within Kenya and Tanzania. Four major waves of migrations into the former [[Nyanza province]] in Kenya are discernible starting with the people of Jok (''Joka Jok''), which is estimated to have begun around 1490–1517.{{sfn|Ogot|1967|p=144}}

''Joka Jok'' were the first and largest wave of migrants into northern Nyanza. These migrants settled at a place called Ramogi Hill, then expanded around northern Nyanza. The people of Owiny' (''Jok'Owiny'') and the people of Omolo (''Jok'Omolo'') followed soon after (1598-1625).{{sfn|Ogot|1967|pp=144–154}}

A miscellaneous group composed of the Suba, Sakwa, Asembo, Uyoma, and Kano then followed. The [[Suba people (Kenya)|Suba]] originally were Bantu-speaking people who assimilated into Luo culture. They fled from the [[Buganda Kingdom]] in Uganda after the civil strife that followed the murder of the 24th [[Kabaka of Buganda]] in the mid-18th century and settled in [[South Nyanza]], especially at [[Rusinga Island|Rusinga]] and [[Mfangano Island|Mfangano]] islands.{{sfn|Ogot|1967|p=212}} Luo speakers crossed [[Winam Gulf]] of Lake Victoria from northern Nyanza into [[South Nyanza]] starting in the early 17th century.{{sfn|Ogot|1967|pp=144–154}}

====Post-colonial traditions====
[[File:Mount Elgon-2.jpg|thumb|right|Mount Elgon, referred by Kalenjin as Tulwop Kony, a common Kalenjin point of origin]]
Several historical narratives from the various Kalenjin subtribes point to Tulwetab/Tulwop Kony ([[Mount Elgon]]) as their original point of settlement in Kenya.{{sfn|Kipkorir|Welbourn|1973|p=64}} This point of origin appears as a central theme in most narratives recorded after the colonial period. One of the more famous accounts states:

<blockquote>...&nbsp;The Kalenjin originated from a country in the north known as Emet ab Burgei, which means, the warm country. The people are said to have traveled southwards passing through Mount Elgon or Tulwet ab Kony in Kalenjin. The [[Sabaot people|Sabaot]] settled around the slopes of the mountain while the others travelled on in search of better land. The [[Keiyo people|Keiyo]] and [[Marakwet people|Marakwet]] settled in [[Kerio Valley]] and [[Cherangani Hills]]. The [[Pokot people|Pokot]] settled on the northern side of Mount Elgon and later spread to areas north of Lake Baringo. At [[Lake Baringo]], the [[Tugen people|Tugen]] separated from the Nandi and the Kipsigis. This was during a famine known as Kemeutab Reresik, which means, famine of the bats. It is said that during this famine a bat brought blades of green grass which was taken as a sign of good omen signifying that famine could be averted through movement to greener pastures. The Tugen moved and settled around [[Tugen Hills]] while the Kipsigis and the Lembus [[Nandi people|Nandi]] moved to [[Rongai]] area. The [[Kipsigis people|Kipsigis]] and [[Nandi people|Nandi]] are said to have lived as a united group for a long time but eventually were forced to separate due to antagonistic environmental factors. Some of these were droughts and invasion of the [[Maasai people|Maasai]] from Uasin Gishu.{{sfn|Chesaina|1991|p=29}}</blockquote>

Geographical barriers protected the southerners from Islam's advance, enabling them to retain their social and cultural heritage and their political and religious institutions. The Dinka people were especially secure in the [[Sudd]] marshlands, which protected them from outside interference, and allowed them to remain secure without a large armed forces. The Shilluk, Azande, and Bari people had more regular conflicts with neighbouring states.{{sfn|Gillies|n.d.}}