Editing Murray Bookchin (section)

=== Social ecology<!--'Social ecology (Bookchin)' and 'Social ecology (theory)' redirect here--> ===
{{see also|Social ecology (disambiguation){{!}}Social ecology}}
'''Social ecology'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> is a [[philosophical theory]] associated with Bookchin, concerned with the relationship between ecological and social issues.<ref name="Bookchin-Social-Ecology">{{cite book |last=Bookchin |first=Murray |title=Social Ecology and Communalism |url=http://new-compass.net/sites/new-compass.net/files/Bookchin%27s%20Social%20Ecology%20and%20Communalism.pdf |year=2006 |publisher=[[AK Press]] |isbn=978-1-904859-49-9 |access-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-date=November 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124111812/http://new-compass.net/sites/new-compass.net/files/Bookchin%27s%20Social%20Ecology%20and%20Communalism.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Bookchin-Psichenatura">{{cite web |last=Bookchin |first=Murray |title=What is Social Ecology? |url=http://www.psichenatura.it/fileadmin/img/M._Bookchin_What_is_Social_Ecology.pdf |year=2007 |publisher=psichenatura.it |access-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-date=December 27, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227082949/http://www.psichenatura.it/fileadmin/img/M._Bookchin_What_is_Social_Ecology.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> It is not a movement but a theory primarily associated with his thought and elaborated over his body of work.{{sfn|Light|1998|p=5}} He presents a utopian philosophy of human evolution that combines the nature of biology and society into a third "thinking nature" beyond biochemistry and physiology, which he argues is a more complete, conscious, ethical, and rational nature. Humanity, by this line of thought, is the latest development from the long history of organic development on Earth. Bookchin's social ecology proposes ethical principles for replacing a society's propensity for hierarchy and domination with that of democracy and freedom.<ref name="Stokols2018">{{cite book |last=Stokols |first=Daniel |title=Social Ecology in the Digital Age: Solving Complex Problems in a Globalized World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T4mZDgAAQBAJ |year=2018 |publisher=[[Elsevier Science]] |isbn=978-0-12-803114-8 |page=33 |via=[[Google Books]] |access-date=July 22, 2018 |archive-date=September 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921021324/https://books.google.com/books?id=T4mZDgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

It emerged from a time in the mid-1960s, under the emergence of both the [[environmental movement|global environmental]] and the [[Civil rights movement|American civil rights]] movements, and played a much more visible role from the upward movement against [[nuclear power]] by the late 1970s.<ref name="Bookchin-Socialeco">{{cite web |title=On Bookchin's Social Ecology and its Contributions to Social Movements |work=Institute for Social Ecology |url=http://social-ecology.org/wp/2008/03/on-bookchins-social-ecology-and-its-contributions-to-social-movements/ |year=2018 |publisher=social-ecology.org |access-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-date=September 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929113609/http://social-ecology.org/wp/2008/03/on-bookchins-social-ecology-and-its-contributions-to-social-movements/ |url-status=live |last1=Tokar |first1=Brian }}</ref> It presents ecological problems as arising mainly from social problems, in particular from different forms of hierarchy and domination beginning with gerontocracy and patriarchy and extending through various forms of oppression including gender, race, and class status. It seeks to resolve them through the model of a non-hierarchical ecological society based on self-determination at the local level,<ref>{{harvnb|Bookchin|2015|p=39}} It is a theory of radical [[political ecology]] based on [[Communalism (Bookchin)|communalism]]</ref> which opposes the current [[Criticism of capitalism|capitalist system of production]] and [[Consumerism|consumption]]. It aims to set up a moral, decentralized, united society, guided by reason. While Bookchin distanced himself from [[anarchism]] later in his life, the philosophical theory of social ecology is often considered to be a form of eco-anarchism.<ref>McKay, Iain. ''An Anarchist FAQ.'' AK Press: Oakland. 2008. pp. 65.{{ISBN?}}</ref>

Bookchin wrote about the effects of urbanization on human life in the early 1960s during his participation in the civil rights and related social movements. He then began to pursue the connection between ecological and social issues, culminating with his best-known book, ''The Ecology of Freedom'', which he had developed over a decade.{{Sfn|Light|1998|pp=5–6}} His argument, that human domination and destruction of nature follows from social domination between humans, was a breakthrough position in the growing field of ecology. He writes that life develops from self-organization and evolutionary cooperation ([[symbiosis]]).{{sfn|Light|1998|p=6}} Bookchin wrote of preliterate societies organized around mutual need but ultimately overrun by institutions of hierarchy and domination, such as city-states and capitalist economies, which he attributes uniquely to societies of humans and not communities of animals.{{sfn|Light|1998|p=7}} He proposes confederation between communities of humans run through democracy rather than through administrative logistics.{{sfn|Light|1998|p=8}}

Bookchin's work, beginning with anarchist writings on the subject in the 1960s, has continuously evolved. Towards the end of the 1990s, he increasingly integrated the principle of communalism, with aspirations more inclined towards institutionalized municipal democracy, which distanced him from certain evolutions of [[anarchism]]. Bookchin's work draws inspiration from, and expands up, anarchism (mainly [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]]), [[Syndicalism]], and [[Marxism]] (including the writings of [[Karl Marx|Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]]). Social ecology refuses the pitfalls of a [[Neo-Malthusian]] ecology which erases social relationships by replacing them with "natural forces", but also of a technocratic ecology which considers that environmental progress must rely on technological breakthroughs and that the state will play an integral role in this technological development. According to Bookchin, these two currents depoliticize ecology and mythologize the past and the future.<ref name="Bookchin-Social-Ecology"/>

In May 2016, the first "International Social Ecology Meetings" were organized in [[Lyon, France|Lyon]], France, which brought together a hundred radical environmentalists, decreasing figures and libertarians, most of whom came from France, [[Belgium]], Spain and [[Switzerland]], but also from the United States, [[Guatemala]] and Canada. At the center of the debates: libertarian municipalism as an alternative to the nation state and the need to rethink activism.<ref>{{cite web |title=Questions pour un autre futur |trans-title=Questions for another future |url=http://www.lecourrier.ch/140925/questions_pour_un_autre_futur |date=July 25, 2016 |publisher=Le Courrier |language=fr |access-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-date=May 27, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170527152530/https://www.lecourrier.ch/140925/questions_pour_un_autre_futur |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rencontres Internationales de l'Écologie Sociale – 27 28 et 29 mai 2016 Lyon |trans-title=International Meetings of Social Ecology – 27 28 and 29 May 2016, Lyon |url=http://www.passerelleco.info/article.php?id_article=2091 |date=March 16, 2016 |publisher=Passerelle éco |language=fr |access-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223193940/https://www.passerelleco.info/article.php?id_article=2091 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tokar |first=Brian |chapter=Bookchin's Social Ecology and its Contributions to the Red-Green Movement |author-link=Brian Tokar |editor-last=Huan |editor-first=Qingzhi |title=Eco-socialism as Politics: Rebuilding the Basis of Our Modern Civilisation |date=2010 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |isbn=978-90-481-3745-9 |doi=10.1007/978-90-481-3745-9_8 |pages=123–140 [123–127]}}</ref>

==== Kurdish movement ====
Bookchin's reflections on social ecology and libertarian municipalism also inspired [[Abdullah Öcalan]], the historical leader of the Kurdish movement, to create the concept of [[democratic confederalism]], which aims to bring together the peoples of the Middle East in a confederation of democratic, multicultural and [[ecologism|ecological]] communes.<ref name="utopia1">{{cite web |last1=Bookchin |first1=Debbie |url=https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2018/06/15/how-my-fathers-ideas-helped-the-kurds-create-a-new-democracy/ |title=How My Father's Ideas Helped the Kurds Create a New Democracy |work=The [[New York Review of Books]] |date=June 15, 2018 |access-date=May 20, 2016 |archive-date=September 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901113249/https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2018/06/15/how-my-fathers-ideas-helped-the-kurds-create-a-new-democracy/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="diplo1">{{cite web |first=Benjamin |last=Fernandez |title=Murray Bookchin, écologie ou barbarie |trans-title=Murray Bookchin, ecology or barbarism |url=https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2016/07/FERNANDEZ/55910 |date=July 2016 |publisher=Le Monde diplomatique |language=fr |access-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-date=November 17, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117083059/http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2016/07/FERNANDEZ/55910 |url-status=live }}</ref> Adopted by the [[Kurdistan Workers' Party]] (PKK) since 2005, Öcalan's project represents a major ideological shift away from their previous goal of establishing a [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] state.<ref name="utopia1"/><ref name="nyt-2015">{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/29/magazine/a-dream-of-utopia-in-hell.html |title=A Dream of Secular Utopia in ISIS' Backyard |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 24, 2015 |access-date=July 1, 2020 |archive-date=December 8, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161208171016/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/29/magazine/a-dream-of-utopia-in-hell.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="haaretz-2019">{{cite web |url=https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-amid-syria-s-darkness-a-democratic-egalitarian-and-feminist-society-emerges-1.7339983 |title=In the Heart of Syria's Darkness, a Democratic, Egalitarian and Feminist Society Emerges |last=Shilton |first=Dor |date=June 9, 2019 |publisher=[[Haaretz]] |access-date=July 2, 2020 |archive-date=July 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702001149/https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-amid-syria-s-darkness-a-democratic-egalitarian-and-feminist-society-emerges-1.7339983 |url-status=live }}</ref> In addition to the PKK, Öcalan's internationalist project was also well received by its Syrian counterpart, the [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Party of Democratic Union]] (PYD), which would become the first organization in the world to actually found a society based on the principles of democratic confederalism.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/oct/27/syria-kurds-dreamt-of-rojava-revolution-assad-will-snuff-this-out |title=Syria's Kurds dreamt of a 'Rojava revolution'. Assad will snuff this out |last=Malik |first=Kenan |date=October 27, 2019 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=July 2, 2020 |archive-date=May 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200525174030/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/oct/27/syria-kurds-dreamt-of-rojava-revolution-assad-will-snuff-this-out |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.plutobooks.com/9781783719884/revolution-in-rojava/ |title=Revolution in Rojava Democratic Autonomy and Women's Liberation in Syrian Kurdistan |publisher=[[Pluto Books]] |access-date=July 2, 2020 |archive-date=June 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622162411/https://www.plutobooks.com/9781783719884/revolution-in-rojava/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/14/opinion/trump-syria-kurds-turkey.html |title=What the World Loses if Turkey Destroys the Syrian Kurds |last=Krajeski |first=Jenna |date=October 14, 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=July 2, 2020 |archive-date=July 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703075541/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/14/opinion/trump-syria-kurds-turkey.html |url-status=live }}</ref> On January 6, 2014, the cantons of [[Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|Rojava]], in [[Syrian Kurdistan]], federated into autonomous municipalities, adopting a social contract which established a decentralized non-hierarchical society, based on principles of [[direct democracy]], [[feminism]], ecology, [[multiculturalism|cultural pluralism]], participatory politics and [[cooperativism|economic cooperativism]].<ref name="nyt-2015"/><ref name="haaretz-2019"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://newint.org/features/2020/06/11/big-story-kurds-betrayed-again |title=In the Autonomous Zones |last=Baird |first=Vanessa |date=June 22, 2020 |publisher=The New International |access-date=July 2, 2020 |archive-date=July 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701123436/https://newint.org/features/2020/06/11/big-story-kurds-betrayed-again |url-status=live }}</ref>