Editing Misanthropy (section)

== Causes ==
Various psychological and social factors have been identified in the academic literature as possible causes of misanthropic sentiments. The individual factors by themselves may not be able to fully explain misanthropy but can show instead how it becomes more likely.{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}} For example, disappointments and disillusionments in life can cause a person to adopt a misanthropic outlook.{{sfn|Harris|2022|p=195}}{{sfn|Chambers|1847|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6YNKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA191 191]}} In this regard, the more idealistic and [[Optimism|optimistic]] the person initially was, the stronger this reversal and the following negative outlook tend to be.{{sfn|Harris|2022|p=195}} This type of psychological explanation is found as early as [[Plato]]'s [[Phaedo]]. In it, [[Socrates]] considers a person who trusts and admires someone without knowing them sufficiently well. He argues that misanthropy may arise if it is discovered later that the admired person has serious flaws. In this case, the initial attitude is reversed and universalized to apply to all others, leading to general distrust and contempt toward other humans. Socrates argues that this becomes more likely if the admired person is a close friend and if it happens more than once.{{sfn|Shakespeare|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mcQ0AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT208 208]}}{{sfn|White|1989|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nsdfdzRSLYAC&pg=PA134 134]}} This form of misanthropy may be accompanied by a feeling of [[Self-righteousness|moral superiority]] in which the misanthrope considers themselves to be better than everyone else.{{sfn|Harris|2022|p=195}}

Other types of negative personal experiences in life may have a similar effect. [[Andrew William Gibson|Andrew Gibson]] uses this line of thought to explain why some philosophers became misanthropes. He uses the example of [[Thomas Hobbes]] to explain how a politically unstable environment and the frequent wars can foster a misanthropic attitude. Regarding [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], he states that being forced to flee one's home at an early age and never finding a place to call home afterward can have a similar effect.{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}}{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=98–9, 107–8}} Another psychological factor concerns negative attitudes toward the human body, especially in the form of general revulsion from sexuality.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=13, 119, 207}}{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}}

Besides the psychological causes, some wider social circumstances may also play a role. Generally speaking, the more negative the circumstances are, the more likely misanthropy becomes.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=119}}{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}} For instance, according to political scientist Eric M. Uslaner, [[Economic inequality|socio-economic inequality]] in the form of unfair distribution of wealth increases the tendency to adopt a misanthropic perspective. This has to do with the fact that inequality tends to undermine trust in the government and others. Uslaner suggests that it may be possible to overcome or reduce this source of misanthropy by implementing policies that build trust and promote a more equal distribution of wealth.{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}}{{sfn|Hooghe|Stolle|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lR3GAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA185 185]}} The political [[regime]] is another relevant factor. This specifically concerns [[authoritarian regimes]] using all means available to repress their population and stay in power.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=13, 62, 207}}{{sfn|Tsakalakis|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u8P4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT142 142]}} For example, it has been argued that the severe forms of repression of the [[Ancien Régime]] in the late 17th century made it more likely for people to adopt a misanthropic outlook because their freedom was denied.{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}}{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=61, 207}} [[Democracy]] may have the opposite effect since it allows more personal freedom due to its more optimistic outlook on human nature.{{Sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=13, 62, 207}}{{sfn|Tsakalakis|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u8P4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT142 142]}}

Empirical studies often use questions related to trust in other people to measure misanthropy. This concerns specifically whether the person believes that others would be fair and helpful.{{sfn|Smith|1997|pp=170–196}}{{sfn|Rosenberg|1956|pp=690–695}} In an empirical study on misanthropy in American society, Tom W. Smith concludes that factors responsible for an increased misanthropic outlook are low socioeconomic status, being from racial and ethnic minorities, and having experienced recent negative events in one's life. In regard to religion, misanthropy is higher for people who do not attend church and for fundamentalists. Some factors seem to play no significant role, like gender, having undergone a divorce, and never having been married.{{sfn|Smith|1997|pp=170–196}} Another study by Morris Rosenberg finds that misanthropy is linked to certain political outlooks. They include being skeptical about [[free speech]] and a tendency to support authoritarian policies. This concerns, for example, tendencies to suppress political and religious liberties.{{sfn|Smith|1997|pp=170–196}}{{sfn|Rosenberg|1956|pp=690–695}}