Editing Marcus Garvey (section)

==Organization of the UNIA==
===Forming the UNIA: 1914–1916===
{{Quote box
| quote = To the cultured mind the bulk of our [i.e. black] people are contemptible[…] Go into the country parts of Jamaica and you will see there villainy and vice of the worst kind, immorality, obeah and all kinds of dirty things[…] Kingston and its environs are so infested with the uncouth and vulgar of our people that we of the cultured class feel positively ashamed to move about. Well, this society [UNIA] has set itself the task to go among the people[…] and raise them to the standard of civilised approval.
| source=— Garvey, from a 1915 Collegiate Hall speech published in the ''Daily Chronicle''{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=64}}
| align = right
| width = 25em
}}

Garvey arrived back in Jamaica in July 1914.{{sfnm|1a1=Martin|1y=1983|1p=27|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=53|3a1=Hill|3y=2013|3p=58}} There, he saw his article for ''Tourist'' republished in ''[[The Gleaner]]''.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=56}} He began earning money selling greeting and condolence cards that he had imported from Britain, before later switching to selling tombstones.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=61}}

Also in July 1914, Garvey launched the [[Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League]], commonly abbreviated as UNIA.{{sfnm|1a1=Martin|1y=1983|1pp=27–28|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=53}} Adopting the motto of "One Aim. One God. One Destiny",{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=18|2a1=Martin|2y=1983|2p=33|3a1=Grant|3y=2008|3p=54}} it declared its commitment to "establish a brotherhood among the black race, to promote a spirit of race pride, to reclaim the fallen and to assist in civilising the backward tribes of Africa."{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=54}} Initially, it had only a few members.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=59}} Many Jamaicans were critical of the group's prominent use of the term "[[Negro]]", a term that was often employed as an insult:{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=54}} Garvey, however, embraced the term with reference to black people of African descent.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=xii}}

Garvey became UNIA's president and travelling commissioner;{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=18|2a1=Martin|2y=1983|2p=30|3a1=Grant|3y=2008|3p=56}} it was initially based out of his hotel room in Orange Street, Kingston.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=56}} It portrayed itself not as a political organization but as a charitable club,{{sfnm|1a1=Martin|1y=1983|1pp=33, 34|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=56}} focused on work to help the poor and to ultimately establish a vocational training college modelled on Washington's [[Tuskegee Institute]] in [[Alabama]].{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=18|2a1=Martin|2y=1983|2p=33|3a1=Grant|3y=2008|3p=60}} Garvey wrote to Washington and received a brief, if encouraging reply; Washington died shortly after.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=19|2a1=Martin|2y=1983|2pp=36–37|3a1=Grant|3y=2008|3p=69}} UNIA officially expressed its loyalty to the British Empire, [[George V|King George V]], and the British effort in the ongoing [[First World War]].{{sfnm|1a1=Martin|1y=1983|1p=34|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=59}} In April 1915, Brigadier General L. S. Blackden lectured to the group on the war effort;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=63}} Garvey endorsed Blackden's calls for more Jamaicans to sign up to fight for the Empire on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=63}} The group also sponsored musical and literary evenings as well as a February 1915 elocution contest, at which Garvey took first prize.{{sfnm|1a1=Martin|1y=1983|1pp=33–34|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=62}}

In August 1914, Garvey attended a meeting of the Queen Street Baptist Literary and Debating Society, where he met [[Amy Ashwood]], recently graduated from the [[Westwood Training College for Women]].{{sfnm|1a1=Martin|1y=1983|1p=30|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=57}} She joined UNIA and rented a better premises for them to use as their headquarters, secured using her father's credit.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=57–58}} She and Garvey embarked on a relationship, which was opposed by her parents. In 1915, they secretly became engaged.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=61}} When she suspended the engagement, he threatened to commit suicide, at which she resumed it.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=61–62}}

{{Quote box
| quote = I was openly hated and persecuted by some of these colored men of the island who did not want to be classified as Negroes but as white.
| source=— Garvey, on how he was received in Jamaica{{sfn|Cronon|1955|p=18}}
| align = left
| width = 25em
}}

Garvey attracted financial contributions from many prominent patrons, including the Mayor of Kingston and the Governor of Jamaica, [[William Manning (colonial governor)|William Manning]].{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=18|2a1=Martin|2y=1983|2p=34|3a1=Grant|3y=2008|3p=60}} By appealing directly to Jamaica's white elite, Garvey had skipped the brown middle-classes, comprising those who were classified as [[mulattos]], [[quadroons]], and [[octoroons]]. They were generally hostile to Garvey, regarding him as a pretentious social climber and being annoyed at his claim to be part of the "cultured class" of Jamaican society.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=65–66}} Many also felt that he was unnecessarily derogatory when describing black Jamaicans, with letters of complaint being sent into the ''Daily Chronicle'' after it published one of Garvey's speeches in which he referred to many of his people as "uncouth and vulgar".{{sfnm|1a1=Martin|1y=1983|1pp=35–36|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=64}} One complainant, a Dr Leo Pink, related that "the Jamaican Negro can not be reformed by abuse".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=64}} After unsubstantiated allegations began circling that Garvey was diverting UNIA funds to pay for his own personal expenses, the group's support began to decline.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=66}} He became increasingly aware of how UNIA had failed to thrive in Jamaica and decided to migrate to the United States, sailing there aboard the ''SS Tallac'' in March 1916.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=71–72}}

===Moving to the United States: 1916–1918===

[[File:Flag of the UNIA.svg|thumb|right|The UNIA flag, a tricolour of red, black, and green. According to Garvey, the red symbolises the blood of martyrs, the black symbolizes the skin of Africans, and the green represents the vegetation of the African land.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=67|2a1=Cashmore|2y=1983|2p=160|3a1=Barrett|3y=1997|3p=143|4a1=Grant|4y=2008|4pp=214–215}}]]

Arriving in the United States, Garvey initially lodged with a Jamaican expatriate family living in [[Harlem]], a largely black area of New York City.{{sfnm|1a1=Martin|1y=1983|1pp=38–39|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=72–73}} He began lecturing in the city, hoping to make a career as a public speaker, although at his first public speech he was heckled and fell off the stage.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=77–79}} From New York City, he embarked on a U.S. speaking tour, crossing 38 states.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=40|2a1=Martin|2y=1983|2p=39|3a1=Grant|3y=2008|3p=80}} At stopovers on his journey he listened to preachers from the [[African Methodist Episcopal Church]] and the [[National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.|Black Baptist]] churches.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=83}} While in Alabama, he visited the Tuskegee Institute and met with its new leader, [[Robert Russa Moton]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=83–84}} After six months traveling across the U.S. lecturing, he returned to New York City.{{sfnm|1a1=Martin|1y=1983|1p=42|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=86}}

In May 1917, Garvey launched a New York branch of UNIA.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=42|2a1=Hart|2y=1967|2p=222|3a1=Martin|3y=1983|3p=46|4a1=Grant|4y=2008|4p=87}} He declared membership open to anyone "of Negro blood and African ancestry" who could pay the 25-cents-a-month membership fee.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=117}} He joined many other speakers who made speeches on the street, standing on step-ladders;{{sfnm|1a1=Martin|1y=1983|1p=46|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=88–89}} he often did so at Speakers' Corner on [[135th Street (Manhattan)|135th Street]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=90}} In his speeches, he sought to reach across to both [[Afro-Caribbean people|Afro-Caribbean]] migrants like himself and native [[African Americans]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=91}} Through this, he began to associate with [[Hubert Harrison]], who was promoting ideas of black self-reliance and racial separatism.{{sfnm|1a1=Martin|1y=1983|1p=43|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=91–93}} In June, Garvey shared a stage with Harrison at the inaugural meeting of the latter's Liberty League of Negro-Americans.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=41|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=93}} Through his appearance here and at other events organized by Harrison, Garvey attracted growing public attention.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=93}}

After [[United States in World War I|the U.S. entered the First World War]] in April 1917, Garvey initially signed up to fight but was ruled physically unfit to do so.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=96–97}} He later became an opponent of African-American involvement in the conflict, following Harrison in accusing it of being a "white man's war".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=98}} In the wake of the [[East St. Louis Race Riots]] in May to July 1917, in which white mobs targeted black people, Garvey began calling for armed self-defense.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=98–100}} He produced a pamphlet, ''The Conspiracy of the East St Louis Riots'', which was widely distributed; proceeds from its sale went to victims of the riots.{{sfnm|1a1=Martin|1y=1983|1p=45|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=102}} The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|Bureau of Investigation]] began monitoring him, noting that in speeches he employed more militant language than that used in print; it for instance reported his expressing the view that "for every Negro lynched by whites in the South, Negroes should lynch a white in the North."{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=104}}

By the end of 1917, Garvey had attracted many of Harrison's key associates in his Liberty League to join UNIA.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=105}} Garvey also secured the support of the journalist [[John Edward Bruce]], agreeing to step down from the group's presidency in favor of Bruce.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=105–106}} Bruce then wrote to Dusé Mohamed Ali to learn more about Garvey's past. Mohamed Ali responded with a negative assessment of Garvey, suggesting that he simply used UNIA as a money-making scheme. Bruce read this letter to a UNIA meeting and put pressure on Garvey's position.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=43|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=108}} Garvey then resigned from UNIA, establishing a rival group that met at [[Old Fellows Temple]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=108}} He also launched legal proceedings against Bruce and other senior UNIA members, with the court ruling that UNIA's name and membership—now estimated at 600—belonged to Garvey, who resumed control over the organization.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=108–109}}

===The growth of UNIA: 1918–1921===

UNIA membership grew rapidly in 1918.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=117}} In June that year it was [[Incorporation (business)|incorporated]],{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=43|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=117}} and in July a commercial arm, the African Communities' League, filed for incorporation.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=117}} Garvey envisioned UNIA establishing an import-and-export business, a restaurant, and a laundry.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=117}} He also proposed raising the funds to secure a permanent building as a base for the group.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=117}} In April, Garvey launched a weekly newspaper, the ''[[Negro World]]'',{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=135}} which Edmund David Cronon later noted remained "the personal propaganda organ of its founder".{{sfn|Cronon|1955|p=46}} Financially, the ''Negro World'' was backed by philanthropists such as [[Madam C. J. Walker]],{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=138}} but six months after its launch was pursuing a special appeal for donations to keep it afloat.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=137}}

Various journalists took Garvey to court for his failure to pay them for their contributions, a fact much publicized by rival publications;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=138}} at the time, there were more than 400 black-run newspapers and magazines in the U.S.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=136}} Unlike many of these, Garvey refused to feature adverts for [[Skin whitening|skin-lightening]] and [[Hair straightening|hair-straightening]] products,{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=48|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=139}} urging black people to "take the kinks out of your mind, instead of out of your hair".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=139}} By the end of its first year, the circulation of ''Negro World'' was nearing 10,000;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=138}} copies circulated not only in the U.S., but also in the Caribbean, Central, and South America.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=148}} Several [[British West Indies|British West Indian]] islands banned the publication.{{sfn|Elkins|1972|p=64}}

[[File:NegroWorld-July31-1920.jpg|thumb|upright|In 1918, Garvey's [[UNIA]] began publishing the ''[[Negro World]]'' newspaper.]]
Garvey appointed his old friend Domingo, who had also arrived in New York City, as the newspaper's editor.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=143}} However, Domingo's [[socialism|socialist]] views alarmed Garvey, who feared that they would imperil UNIA.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=153}} Garvey had Domingo brought before UNIA's nine-person executive committee, where the latter was accused of writing editorials professing ideas at odds with UNIA's message. Domingo resigned several months later; he and Garvey henceforth became enemies.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=154}} In September 1918, Amy Ashwood sailed from Panama to be with Garvey, arriving in New York City in October.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=146}} In November, she became General Secretary of UNIA.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=147}} At UNIA gatherings, she was responsible for reciting black-authored poetry, as was the actress [[Henrietta Vinton Davis]], who had also joined the movement.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=166}}

After the First World War ended, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] declared his intention to present a 14-point plan for world peace at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|forthcoming Paris Peace Conference]]. Garvey joined various African Americans in forming the [[International League for Darker People]], a group that sought to lobby Wilson and the conference to give greater respect to the wishes of people of color; their delegates nevertheless were unable to secure the travel documentation.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=128, 174}} At Garvey's prompting, UNIA sent a young Haitian, [[Eliezer Cadet]], as its delegate to the conference.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=172}} Despite these efforts, the political leaders who met in Paris largely ignored the perspectives of non-European peoples, instead reaffirming their support for continued European colonial rule.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=177–178, 182}}

In the U.S., many African Americans who had served in the military refused to return to their more subservient role in society and throughout 1919 there were various racial clashes throughout the country.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=122–123}} The government feared that African Americans would be encouraged toward revolutionary behavior following the [[October Revolution]] in Russia,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=125}} and in this context, military intelligence ordered Major [[Walter Loving]] to investigate Garvey.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=126–127}} Loving's report concluded that Garvey was a "very able young man" who was disseminating "clever propaganda".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=158}} The Bureau of Investigation's [[J. Edgar Hoover]] decided that Garvey was politically subversive and should be deported from the U.S., adding his name to the list of those to be targeted in the forthcoming [[Palmer Raids]]. To ratify the deportation, the Bureau of Investigation presented Garvey's name to the [[United States Department of Labor|Labor Department]] under [[Louis F. Post]]; however, Post's department refused to do so, stating that the case against Garvey was not proven.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=157}}

====Success and obstacles====
[[File:Marcus Garvey speaking at Liberty Hall, Harlem, 1920.png|thumb|upright|Garvey speaking at Liberty Hall, Harlem, in 1920]]
UNIA grew rapidly and in just over 18 months it had branches in 25 U.S. states, as well as divisions in the West Indies, Central America, and West Africa.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=164}} The exact membership is not known, although Garvey—who often exaggerated numbers—claimed that by June 1919 it had two million members.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=164}} It remained smaller than the better established [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP),{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=164}} although there was some crossover in membership of the two groups.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=299}} The NAACP and UNIA differed in their approach; while the NAACP was a multi-racial organization which promoted racial integration, UNIA had a black-only membership policy. The NAACP focused its attention on what it termed the "[[The Talented Tenth|talented tenth]]" of the African-American population, such as doctors, lawyers, and teachers, whereas UNIA included many poorer people and Afro-Caribbean migrants in its ranks, seeking to project an image of itself as a mass organization.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=165}} To promote his views to a wide audience, Garvey took to shouting slogans from a megaphone as he was driven through Harlem in a [[Cadillac]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=174}}

There were tensions between UNIA and the NAACP and the latter's supporters accused Garvey of stymieing their efforts at bringing about racial integration in the U.S.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=303}} Garvey was dismissive of the NAACP leader [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], and in one issue of the ''Negro World'' called him a "reactionary under [the] pay of white men".{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=181–182}} Du Bois generally tried to ignore Garvey,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=223}} regarding him as a [[demagoguery|demagogue]],{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=326}} but at the same time wanted to learn all he could about Garvey's movement.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=248}} In 1921, Garvey twice reached out to Du Bois, asking him to contribute to UNIA publications, but the offer was rebuffed.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=302–303}} Their relationship became acrimonious; in 1923, Du Bois described Garvey as "a little fat black man, ugly but with intelligent eyes and big head".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=298}} By 1924, historian [[Colin Grant (author)|Colin Grant]] has suggested, the two hated each other.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=298}}

UNIA established a restaurant and ice cream parlor at 56 West 135th Street,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=155}} and also launched a millinery store selling hats.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=61|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=186}} With an increased income coming in through UNIA, Garvey moved to a new residence at 238 West 131st Street;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=165}} in 1919, a young middle-class Jamaican migrant, [[Amy Jacques Garvey|Amy Jacques]], became his personal secretary.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=210–212}} UNIA also obtained a partly-constructed church building at 114 West 138 Street in Harlem, which Garvey named "Liberty Hall" after [[Liberty Hall|its namesake]] in [[Dublin]], Ireland, which had been established during the [[Easter Rising]] of 1916.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=49|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=197}} The adoption of this name reflected Garvey's fascination with the [[Irish War of Independence|Irish independence movement]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=197}} Liberty Hall's dedication ceremony was held in July 1919.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=49|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=198}} During the [[hunger strike]] of [[Terence MacSwiney]], Garvey supported [[solidarity strike]]s in support of MacSwiney{{sfn|Silvestri|2009|p=32}} and made appeals to the British government on his behalf.{{sfn|Dooley|1998|p=119}}

Garvey also organized the African Legion, a group of uniformed men who would attend UNIA parades;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=219}} a secret service was formed from Legion members, providing Garvey with intelligence about group members.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=360}} The formation of the Legion further concerned the Bureau of Investigation, who sent their first full-time black agent, [[James Wormley Jones]], to infiltrate UNIA.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=219–220}}
In January 1920, Garvey incorporated the [[Negro Factories Corporation|Negro Factories League]],{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=60|2a1=Fierce|2y=1972|2p=56|3a1=Grant|3y=2008|3p=230}} through which he opened a string of grocery stores, a restaurant, a steam laundry, and publishing house.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=60|2a1=Fierce|2y=1972|2pp=56–57}}
According to Grant, a [[personality cult]] had grown up around Garvey within the UNIA movement;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=234}} life-size portraits of him hung in the UNIA headquarters and phonograph records of his speeches were sold to the membership.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=345}}

[[File:UNIA parade in Harlem, 1920.jpg|thumb|A UNIA parade through Harlem in 1920]]

In August 1920, UNIA organized the First International Conference of the Negro Peoples in Harlem.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=62|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=242–243}} This parade was attended by Gabriel Johnson, the Mayor of [[Monrovia]] in Liberia.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=69|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=243}} As part of it, an estimated 25,000 people assembled in [[Madison Square Gardens]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=245}} At the conference, UNIA delegates declared Garvey to be the Provisional President of Africa, charged with heading a [[government-in-exile]] that could take power in the continent when European colonial rule ended via [[decolonization]].{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=67|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=243}} Some of the West Africans attending the event were angered by this, believing it wrong that an Afro-Jamaican, rather than a native African, was taking this role.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=262}}

Many outside the movement ridiculed Garvey for giving himself this title.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=243}} The conference then elected other members of the African government-in-exile,{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=67|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=266}} resulting in the production of a "Declaration of the Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World" which condemned European colonial rule across Africa.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=66|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=261|3a1=Fergus|3y=2010|3p=36}} In August 1921, UNIA held a banquet in Liberty Hall, at which Garvey gave out honors to various supporters, including such titles as the [[Order of the Nile]] and the Order of Ethiopia.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=315–317}}

UNIA established growing links with the Liberian government, hoping to secure land in the West African nation on which it could settle African-American migrants.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=276}} Liberia was in heavy debt, with UNIA launching a fundraising campaign to raise $2 million towards a Liberian Construction Loan.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=276}} In 1921, Garvey sent a UNIA team to assess the prospects of mass African-American settlement in Liberia.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=281}}
Internally, UNIA experienced various feuds. Garvey pushed out [[Cyril Briggs]] and other members of the [[African Blood Brotherhood]] from UNIA, wanting to place growing distance between himself and black socialist groups.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=311–313}} In the ''Negro World'', Garvey then accused Briggs—who was of mixed heritage—of being a white man posing as a black man. Briggs successfully sued Garvey for criminal libel.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=75|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=312–313}} This was not the only time he faced this charge; in July 1919, Garvey had been arrested for comments in the ''Negro World'' about [[Edwin P. Kilroe]], the Assistant District Attorney in the District Attorney's office of the County of New York.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=199}} When this case eventually came to court, the court ordered Garvey to provide a printed retraction.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=75|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=254–255}}

====Assassination attempt, marriage, and divorce====

In October 1919, George Tyler, a part-time vendor of the ''Negro World'', entered the UNIA office and told Garvey that Kilroe "had sent him" and tried to assassinate Garvey. Garvey was shot at four times with a .38-calibre revolver, and received two bullets in his right leg and scalp but survived. Tyler was soon apprehended but committed suicide by leaping from the third-tier of the Harlem jail; it was never revealed why he tried to kill Garvey.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.harlemworldmagazine.com/marcus-garvey-in-his-harlem-office-1914/ | title=Marcus Garvey in His Harlem Office, 1914 – Harlem World Magazine | work=Harlem World Magazine | date=3 November 2013 | author1=Cass }}</ref>{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=212–214}} Garvey soon recovered from his wounds; five days later he gave a public speech in [[Philadelphia]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=214}} After the assassination attempt, Garvey hired a bodyguard, Marcellus Strong.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=218}}

{{listen|filename=Marcus Garvey, speech, 1921.ogg|left|title="Explanation of the Objects of the Universal Negro Improvement Association"|description=Complete 1921 speech|type=speech}}

Shortly after the incident, Garvey proposed marriage to Amy Ashwood and she accepted.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=224}} On [[Christmas Day]], they had a private [[Marriage in the Catholic Church|Catholic wedding]], followed by a major ceremonial celebration in Liberty Hall, attended by 3000 UNIA members.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=225}} Jacques was Ashwood's [[maid of honor]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=224}} After the wedding, Garvey moved into Ashwood's apartment.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=236}} The newlyweds embarked on a two-week honeymoon in Canada, accompanied by a small UNIA retinue, including Jacques. There, Garvey spoke at two mass meetings in [[Montreal]] and three in [[Toronto]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=226}} After their return to Harlem, the couple's marriage was soon strained. Ashwood complained of Garvey's growing closeness with Jacques.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=236}} Garvey was upset by his inability to control his wife, particularly her drinking and her socializing with other men.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=236–238}} She was pregnant, although the child was possibly not his; she did not inform him of this, and the pregnancy ended in miscarriage.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=238}}

Three months into the marriage, Garvey sought an annulment, on the basis of Ashwood's alleged adultery and the claim that she had used "fraud and concealment" to induce the marriage.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=238–239}} She launched a counter-claim for desertion, requesting $75-a-week alimony. The court rejected this sum, instead ordering Garvey to pay her $12 a week. It refused to grant him the divorce.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=239}} The court proceedings continued for two years.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=239}} Now separated, Garvey moved into a 129th Street apartment with Jacques and [[Henrietta Vinton Davis]], an arrangement that at the time could have caused some social controversy.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=240}} He was later joined there by his sister Indiana and her husband, Alfred Peart.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=278}} Ashwood, meanwhile, went on to become a lyricist and musical director for musicals amid the [[Harlem Renaissance]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=257}}

====The Black Star Line====

{{Quote box
| quote = Black Star Line was organized for the industrial, commercial and economic development of the race to carry out the program of U.N.I.A., that is to have ships to link up
the Negro peoples of the world in commercial trade and in fraternities.
| source=— ''The Negro World''{{sfn|Fierce|1972|p=54}}
| align = left
| width = 25em
}}

From 56 West 135th Street, UNIA also began selling shares for a new business, the [[Black Star Line]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=155}} Seeking to challenge white domination of the maritime industry,{{sfn|Fierce|1972|p=54}} the Black Star Line based its name on the [[White Star Line]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=187}} Garvey envisioned a shipping and passenger line traveling between Africa and the Americas, which would be black-owned, black-staffed, and utilized by black patrons.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1pp=50–51|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=187}} He thought that the project could be launched by raising $2 million from African-American donors,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=188}} publicly declaring that any black person who did not buy stock in the company "will be worse than a traitor to the cause of struggling Ethiopia".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=210}}

Garvey incorporated the company and then set about trying to purchase a ship.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=192–193}} Many African Americans took great pride in buying company stock, seeing it as an investment in their community's future;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=194}} Garvey also promised that when the company began turning a profit they would receive significant financial returns on their investment.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=195}} To advertise this stock, he traveled to Virginia,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=195}} and then in September 1919 to Chicago, where he was accompanied by seven other UNIA members. In Chicago, he was arrested and fined for violating the [[Blue Sky Laws]] that banned the sale of stock in the city without a license.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=76|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=207–210}}

With growing quantities of money coming in, a three-man auditing committee was established, which found that UNIA's funds were poorly recorded and that the company's books were not balanced.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=190–191}} This was followed by a breakdown in trust between the directors of the Black Star Line, with Garvey discharging two of them, Richard E. Warner and Edgar M. Grey, and publicly humiliating them at the next UNIA meeting.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=195–197}} People continued buying stock regardless and by September 1919, the Black Star Line company had accumulated $50,000 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|50000|1919|r=-4}}}} in current dollar terms) by selling stock. It could thus afford a thirty-year-old [[tramp ship]], the [[SS Yarmouth|SS ''Yarmouth'']].{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=53|2a1=Fierce|2y=1972|2p=55|3a1=Grant|3y=2008|3pp=204–205}} The ship was formally launched in a ceremony on the [[Hudson River]] on 31 October.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=215}} The company had been unable to find enough trained black seamen to staff the ship, so its initial chief engineer and chief officer were white.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=222}}

[[File:Black Star Line Stock Certificate.jpg|thumb|A certificate for stock of the Black Star Line]]

The ship's first assignment was to sail to Cuba and then to Jamaica, before returning to New York.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=217, 225}} After that first voyage, the ''Yarmouth'' was found to contain many problems and the Black Star Line had to pay $11,000 for repairs.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=227}} On its second voyage, again to the Caribbean, it hit bad weather shortly after departure and had to be towed back to New York by the coastguard for further repairs.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=228}}
Garvey planned to obtain and launch a second ship by February 1920,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=223}} with the Black Star Line putting down a $10,000 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|10000|1920|r=-4}}}} in current dollar terms) [[down payment|deposit]] on a paddle ship called the [[Shady Side (steamboat)|SS ''Shady Side'']].{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=57|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=233}} In July 1920, Garvey sacked both the Black Star Line's secretary, [[Edward D. Smith-Green]], and its captain, Joshua Cockburn; the latter was accused of corruption.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=81|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=241}} In early 1922, the ''Yarmouth'' was sold for scrap metal, bringing the Black Star Line less than a hundredth of its original purchase price.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=84|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=321}} The worn-out steamboat ''Shady Side'' was abandoned on the mud flats at Fort Lee, New Jersey, in the fall of 1922, when the Black Star Line collapsed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/35470447 |title=4 Apr 1939, Page 4 – The Kingston Daily Freeman at |publisher=Newspapers.com |date=1939-04-04 |access-date=2022-07-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3042340 | jstor=3042340 | title=The Black Star Line: The De-Mystification of Marcus Garvey | last1=Harrison | first1=Paul Carter | journal=African American Review | year=1997 | volume=31 | issue=4 | pages=713–716 | doi=10.2307/3042340 }}</ref>

In 1921, Garvey traveled to the Caribbean aboard a Black Star Line ship, the newly-acquired {{SS|Antonio Maceo||2}}.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1pp=85, 88|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=284–285}} While in Jamaica, he criticized its inhabitants as being backward and claimed that "Negroes are the most lazy, the most careless and indifferent people in the world".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=289}} His comments in Jamaica earned many enemies, who criticized him on multiple fronts, including the fact he had left his destitute father to die in an almshouse.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=289–290}} Attacks back-and-forth between Garvey and his critics appeared in the letters published by ''The Gleaner''.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=290}}

From Jamaica, Garvey traveled to Costa Rica, where the [[United Fruit Company]] assisted his transportation around the country, hoping to gain his favor. There, he met with President [[Julio Acosta García|Julio Acosta]].{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=88|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=292–293}} Arriving in Panama, at one of his first speeches, in [[Almirante, Bocas del Toro|Almirante]], he was booed after doubling the advertised entry price; his response was to call the crowd "a bunch of ignorant and impertinent Negroes. No wonder you are where you are and for my part you can stay where you are."{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=293–294}} He received a far warmer reception at [[Panama City]],{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=294–295}} after which he sailed to Kingston. From there he sought a return to the U.S., but was repeatedly denied an entry visa. This was granted only after he wrote directly to the [[United States Department of State|State Department]].{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1pp=89, 91|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=295–296}}

===Criminal charges: 1922–1923===
[[File:Prinz Oskar hapag.jpg|thumb|The steamship ''[[SS Prinz Oskar|Orion]]'']]
In January 1922, Garvey was arrested and charged with mail fraud for having advertised the sale of stocks in a ship, ''[[SS Prinz Oskar|Orion]]'', which the Black Star Line did not yet own.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=100|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=324}} He was bailed for $2,500.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=324}} Hoover and the BOI were committed to securing a conviction;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=328}} they had also received complaints from a small number of the Black Star Line's stock owners, who wanted them to pursue the matter further.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=327}} Garvey spoke out against the charges he faced, but focused on blaming not the state, but rival African-American groups, for them.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=328}} As well as accusing disgruntled former members of UNIA, in a Liberty Hall speech, he implied that the NAACP were behind the conspiracy to imprison him.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=325–326}} The mainstream press picked up on the charge, largely presenting Garvey as a con artist who had swindled African-American people.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=325}}

[[File:Marcus Garvey with Amy Jacques Garvey, 1922.png|thumb|upright|Garvey with his wife [[Amy Jacques]] in 1922]]
After his arrest, Garvey announced that the activities of the Black Star Line were being suspended.{{sfn|Cronon|1955|p=101}} He also made plans for a tour of the western and southern states.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=329}} This included a parade in [[Los Angeles]], partly to woo back members of UNIA's California branch, which had recently splintered off to become independent.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=322, 330}}
In June 1922, Garvey met with [[Edward Young Clarke]], the [[Imperial Wizard]] ''pro tempore'' of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] (KKK) at the Klan's offices in Atlanta.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=320}} Garvey made a number of incendiary speeches in the months leading up to that meeting; in some, he thanked the whites for Jim Crow.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stein|first1=Judith|title=The world of Marcus Garvey : race and class in modern society|date=1991|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|location=Baton Rouge|isbn=978-0-8071-1670-8|pages=154–56|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNguYqqHaQAC&pg=PA153}}</ref> Garvey once stated:

<blockquote>I regard the Klan, the Anglo-Saxon clubs and White American societies, as far as the Negro is concerned, as better friends of the race than all other groups of hypocritical whites put together. I like honesty and fair play. You may call me a Klansman if you will, but, potentially, every white man is a Klansman as far as the Negro in competition with whites socially, economically and politically is concerned, and there is no use lying.{{sfn|Graves|1962|p=71}}<ref name=klansman>{{cite book|author=Compiled by Amy Jacques Garvey|title=The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey Africa for the Africans|date=2013|publisher=Taylor and Francis|location=Hoboken|isbn=978-1-136-23106-3|page=71|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=65krBgAAQBAJ|ref=klan}} With a new introduction by Essien-Udom.</ref></blockquote>

News of Garvey's meeting with the KKK soon spread and it was covered on the front page of many African-American newspapers, causing widespread upset.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=334}} When news of the meeting was revealed, it generated much surprise and anger among African Americans; Grant noted that it marked "the most significant turning point in his popularity".{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=320–321}} Several prominent black Americans—[[Chandler Owen]], [[A. Philip Randolph]], [[William Pickens]], and Robert Bagnall—launched the "Garvey Must Go" campaign in the wake of the revelation.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=336}} Many of these critics played to [[Nativism (politics)|nativist]] ideas by emphasising Garvey's Jamaican identity and sometimes calling for his deportation.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=355}} Pickens and several other of Garvey's critics claimed to have been threatened, and sometimes physically attacked, by Garveyites.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=358–359}} Randolph reported receiving a severed hand in the post, accompanied by a letter from the KKK threatening him to stop criticising Garvey and to join UNIA.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=349–351}}

{{quote box|width=23em|align=left|Have this day interviewed Edward Young Clarke, acting Imperial Wizard Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. In conference of two ours he outlined the aims and objects of the Klan. He denied any hostility towards the Negro Improvement Association. He believes America to be a white man's country, and also states that the Negro should have a country of his own in Africa[…] He has been invited to speak at [UNIA's] forthcoming convention to further assure the race of the stand of the Klan.|source=—Garvey's telegram to UNIA HQ, June 1922.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=333}} }}

1922 also brought some successes for Garvey. He attracted the country's first black pilot, [[Hubert Fauntleroy Julian]], to join UNIA and to perform aerial stunts to raise its profile.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=338–340}} The group also launched its Booker T. Washington University from the UNIA-run Phyllis Wheatley Hotel at 3–13 West 136th Street.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=352}} He also finally succeeded in securing a UNIA delegation to the League of Nations, sending five members to represent the group to Geneva.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=340–341}}

Garvey also proposed marriage to his secretary, Jacques. She accepted, although later stated: "I did not marry for love. I did not love Garvey. I married him because I thought it was the right thing to do."{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=305}} They married in Baltimore in July 1922.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=306}} She proposed that a book of his speeches be published; it appeared as ''The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey'', although the speeches were edited to remove more inflammatory material.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=354}} That year, UNIA also launched a new newspaper, the ''[[Daily Negro Times]]''.{{sfnm|1a1=Cronon|1y=1955|1p=49|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=352–353}}

At UNIA's August 1922 convention, Garvey called for the impeachment of several senior UNIA figures, including Adrian Johnson and J. D. Gibson, and declared that the UNIA cabinet should not be elected by the organization's members, but appointed directly by him.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=341–343}} When they refused to step down, he resigned both as head of UNIA and as Provisional President of Africa, probably in an act designed to compel their own resignations.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=343–344}} He then began openly criticising another senior member, Reverend James Eason, and succeeded in getting him expelled from UNIA.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=345–347}}

With Eason gone, Garvey asked the rest of the cabinet to resign; they did so, at which he resumed his role as head of the organization.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=347}} In September, Eason launched a rival group to UNIA, the Universal Negro Alliance.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=355}} In January 1923, Eason was assassinated by Garveyites while in New Orleans.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=360–361}} Hoover suspected that the killing had been ordered by senior UNIA members, although Garvey publicly denied any involvement; he nevertheless launched a defense fund campaign for Eason's killers.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=361–362}}

Following the murder, eight prominent African Americans signed a public letter calling Garvey "an unscrupulous demagogue who has ceaselessly and assiduously sought to spread among Negroes distrust and hatred of all white people". They urged the Attorney-General to bring forth the criminal case against Garvey and disband UNIA.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=363}} Garvey was furious, publicly accusing them of "the greatest bit of treachery and wickedness that any group of Negroes could be capable of."{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=364}} In a pamphlet attacking them he focused on their racial heritage, lambasting the eight for the reason that "nearly all [are] Octoroons and Quadroons".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=365}} Du Bois—who was not among the eight—then wrote an article critical of Garvey's activities in the U.S.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=365–366}} Garvey responded by calling Du Bois "a Hater of Dark People", an "unfortunate mulatto who bewails every drop of Negro blood in his veins".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=366}}

===Trial: 1923===
[[File:Black Star Line brochure for the SS Phyllis Wheatley.jpg|thumb|The [[Black Star Line]] brochure for ''Phyllis Wheatley'', central exhibit in the Mail Fraud case of 1921. ''Phyllis Wheatley'' did not exist; this is a doctored photograph of an ex-German ship, ''Orion'', put up for sale by the United States Shipping Board. The Black Star Line had proposed to buy her but the transaction was never completed.{{sfn|Martin|2001|p=160}}]]

Having been postponed at least three times,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=333}} in May 1923, the trial finally came to court, with Garvey and three other defendants accused of mail fraud.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=367}}
The judge overseeing the proceedings was [[Julian Mack]], although Garvey disliked his selection on the grounds that he thought Mack an NAACP sympathiser.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=367}} At the start of the trial, Garvey's attorney, Cornelius McDougald, urged him to plead guilty to secure a minimum sentence, but Garvey refused, dismissing McDougald and deciding to represent himself in court.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=368}} The trial proceeded for more than a month.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=369}} Throughout, Garvey struggled due to his lack of legal training.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=369–370}} In his three-hour closing address he presented himself as a selfless leader who was beset by incompetent and thieving staff who caused all the problems for UNIA and the Black Star Line.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=370}} On 18 June, the jurors retired to deliberate on the verdict, returning after ten hours. They found Garvey himself guilty of a scheme to defraud, but his three co-defendants not guilty.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=371}}

Garvey was furious with the verdict, shouting abuse in the courtroom and calling both the judge and district attorney "damned dirty Jews".{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=371–372}} Imprisoned in [[The Tombs]] jail, while awaiting sentence, he continued to blame a Jewish cabal for the verdict. Before this he had never expressed [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]] sentiment and was supportive of [[Zionism]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=372}} When it came to sentencing, Mack sentenced Garvey to five years' imprisonment and a $1000 fine.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=372}}

The severity of the sentence—which was harsher than those given to similar crimes at the time—may have been a response to Garvey's antisemitic outburst.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=372}} He felt that they and Catholic jurors had been biased because of their political objections to his meeting with the acting imperial wizard of the antisemitic and anti-Catholic [[Ku Klux Klan]] the year before.<ref name="marcusgarveylife">{{cite book|editor-first=Robert A.|editor-last= Hill |editor-link = Robert A. Hill (historian) |editor2=Barbara Bair|date=1987|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Marcus_Garvey_Life_and_Lessons/chR4mGJNCS0C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22marcus+garvey%22++%22catholic%22+%22two+jews%22+%22jury%22&pg=PR57&printsec=frontcover |title=Marcus Garvey: Life and Lessons; A Centennial Companion to the Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers|publisher = University of California Press| page= lvii|isbn=9780520062658}}</ref><ref name="marcusgarveylife" /><ref>[https://www.international.ucla.edu/africa/mgpp/lifeintr "Marcus Garvey: Life & Lessons"], UCLA African Studies Center.</ref> In 1928, Garvey told a journalist: "When they wanted to get me they had a Jewish judge try me, and a Jewish prosecutor. I would have been freed but two Jews on the jury held out against me ten hours and succeeded in convicting me, whereupon the Jewish judge gave me the maximum penalty."<ref name="marcusgarveylife" /><ref>{{cite web | url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1321527 | ssrn=1321527 | title=Jailing a Rainbow: The Marcus Garvey Case | date=29 December 2008 | last1=Hansford | first1=Justin }}</ref> A decade later, however, in a ''New Jamaican'' editorial on 28 March 1933, he wrote: "The Jewish race is a noble one, and the Jew is only persecuted because he has certain qualities of progress that other people have not learnt", likened antisemitism to anti-Black persecution, and denounced Nazi racial intolerance.<ref>{{cite book|editor=Hill|date=1987|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?redir_esc=y&id=chR4mGJNCS0C&q=%22Nazi+racial+intolerance%22#v=snippet&q=%22Nazi%20racial%20intolerance%22&f=false |title=Marcus Garvey: Life and Lessons|page=lx}}</ref>

A week after the sentence, 2000 Garveyite protesters met at Liberty Hall to denounce Garvey's conviction as a [[miscarriage of justice]].{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=374}} However, with Garvey imprisoned, UNIA's membership began to decline,{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=376}} and there was a growing schism between its Caribbean and African-American members.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=374}} From jail, Garvey continued to write letters and articles lashing out at those he blamed for the conviction, focusing much of his criticism on the NAACP.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=375–376}}

====Out on bail: 1923–1925====

In September, appellate judge [[Martin Manton]] awarded Garvey bail for $15,000 − which UNIA was able to raise and post — while he appealed against his conviction.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=378}} At least temporarily a free man, Garvey toured the U.S., giving a lecture at the Tuskegee Institute.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=378–379}} In speeches given during this tour he further emphasised the need for racial segregation through migration to Africa, calling the United States "a white man's country".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=379}} He continued to defend his meeting with the KKK, describing them as having more "honesty of purpose towards the Negro" than the NAACP.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=379}} Although he previously avoided involvement with party politics, for the first time he encouraged UNIA to propose candidates in elections, often setting them against NAACP-backed candidates in areas with high black populations.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=380–381}}

{{quote box|width=23em|align=left|The American Negro has endured this wretch [Garvey] too long with fine restraint and every effort of cooperation and understanding. But the end has come. Every man who apologizes for or defends Marcus Garvey from this day forth writes himself down as unworthy of the countenance of decent Americans. As for Garvey himself, this open ally of the Ku Klux Klan should be locked up or sent home.|source=—Du Bois, in ''[[The Crisis]]'', May 1924.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=381–382}} }}
[[File:Marcus Garvey 1924-08-05.jpg|thumb|Garvey in 1924]]
In February 1924, UNIA put forward its plans to bring 3000 African-American migrants to Liberia. The latter's president, [[Charles D. B. King]], assured them that he would grant them land for three colonies.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=383}} In June, a team of UNIA technicians was sent to start work in preparing for these colonies.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=385}} When they arrived in Liberia, they were arrested and immediately deported. At the same time, Liberia's government issued a press release declaring that it would refuse permission for any Americans to settle in their country.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=385–386}}

Garvey blamed WEB Du Bois of the NAACP for this apparent change in the Liberian government's attitude, for the latter had spent time in the country and had links with its ruling elite; Du Bois denied the accusation.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=386}} Later examination suggested that, despite King's assurances to the UNIA team, the Liberian government had never seriously intended to allow African-American colonization, aware that it would harm relations with the British and French colonies on their borders, who feared the political tensions it could bring with it.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=383, 386–387}}

UNIA faced further setbacks when John Edward Bruce died; the group organized a funeral procession ending in a ceremony at Liberty Hall.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=388–389}} In need of additional finances, ''Negro World'' dropped its longstanding ban on advertising skin lightening and hair straightening products.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=289}} The additional revenues allowed the Black Star Line to purchase a new ship, the SS ''General G W Goethals'', in October 1924. It was then renamed the SS ''Booker T. Washington''.{{sfnm|1a1=Fierce|1y=1972|1p=57|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2p=389}}

===Imprisonment: 1925–1927===

In early February 1925, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]] upheld the original court decision.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=390}} Writing for the unanimous court, judge [[Charles Merrill Hough]] opined: "It may be true that Garvey fancied himself a Moses, if not a Messiah; that he deemed himself a man with a message to deliver, and believed that he needed ships for the deliverance of his people; but with this assumed, it remains true that if his gospel consisted in part of exhortations to buy worthless stock, accompanied by deceivingly false statements as to the worth thereof, he was guilty of a scheme or artifice to defraud, if the jury found the necessary intent about his stock scheme, no matter how uplifting, philanthropic, or altruistic his larger outlook may have been. And if such scheme to defraud was accompanied by the use of the mails defined by the statute, he was guilty of an offense under Criminal Code, § 215."<ref>Cronon, E. David; Foreword by John Hope Franklin (1960). [https://www.google.com/books/edition/Black_Moses/8Ya5iEb7_8YC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22It+may+be+true+that+Garvey+fancied+himself+a+Moses,+if+not+a+Messiah%3B+that+he+deemed+himself+a+man+with+a+message+to+deliver%22&pg=PA134&printsec=frontcover ''Black Moses: The Story of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association''], The University of Wisconsin Press, p. 134.</ref><ref>[https://casetext.com/case/garvey-v-united-states "Garvey v. United States"], Circuit Court of Appeals, Second Circuit, 2 February 1925, 4 F.2d 974.</ref>

[[File:Federal Penitentiary Atlanta 1920 postcard.jpg|thumb|A postcard depicting the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary in 1920, a few years before Garvey was imprisoned there]]
Denial of his appeal meant the termination of the bail that had been granted following conviction. Garvey was in Detroit at the time and was arrested while aboard a train back to New York City.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=390–391}} He was taken to the [[United States Penitentiary, Atlanta|Atlanta Federal Penitentiary]] and incarcerated there.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=391}} Imprisoned, he was made to carry out cleaning tasks.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=395–396}} On one occasion he was reprimanded for insolence towards the white prison officers.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=395}} There, he became increasingly ill with chronic bronchitis and lung infections.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=307}} Two years into his imprisonment he was  hospitalized with influenza.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=408}}

Garvey received regular letters from UNIA members and from his wife;{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=394}} she also visited him every three weeks.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=397}} With his support, she assembled another book of his collected speeches, ''Philosophy and Opinions''; these had often been edited to remove inflammatory comments about wielding violence against white people.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=399}} He also wrote ''The Meditations of Marcus Garvey'', its name an allusion to ''[[The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius]]''.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=407}} From prison, Garvey continued corresponding with [[Far-right politics|far-right]] [[white separatism|white separatist]] activists like [[Earnest Sevier Cox]] of the [[White American Society]] and [[John Powell (musician)|John Powell]] of the [[Anglo-Saxon Clubs of America]]; the latter visited Garvey in prison.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=401–402}}

While Garvey was imprisoned, Ashwood launched a legal challenge against his divorce from her. Had the divorce been found void, then his marriage to Jacques would have been invalid.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=394}} The court ruled in favor of Garvey, recognising the legality of his divorce.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=405–407}} With Garvey absent, William Sherrill became acting head of UNIA.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=396}} To deal with the organization's financial problems, he re-mortgaged Liberty Hall to pay off debts and ended up selling off the ''SS Booker T Washington'' at a quarter of what UNIA had paid for it.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=396, 403}}

Garvey was angry and in February 1926 wrote to the ''Negro World'' expressing his dissatisfaction with Sherrill's leadership.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=402–403}} From prison, he organized an emergency UNIA convention in [[Detroit]], where delegates voted to depose Sherrill.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=403}} The latter's supporters then held a rival convention in Liberty Hall, reflecting the growing schism in the organization.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=403–404}} A subsequent court ruling determined that it was UNIA's New York branch, then controlled by Sherrill, rather than the central UNIA leadership itself, that owned Liberty Hall.{{sfn|Grant|2008|pp=404–405}} The financial problems continued, resulting in Liberty Hall being repeatedly re-mortgaged and then sold.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=410}}

The Attorney General, [[John G. Sargent|John Sargent]], received a petition with 70,000 signatures urging for Garvey's release.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=400}} Sargeant warned President [[Calvin Coolidge]] that African Americans were regarding Garvey's imprisonment not as a form of justice against a man who had swindled them but as "an act of oppression of the race in their efforts in the direction of race progress".{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=410}} Eventually, Coolidge agreed to commute the sentence so that it would expire immediately, on 18 November 1927, after Garvey had served about half of the five-year term of imprisonment. The commutation stipulated, however, that Garvey should be deported immediately.{{sfnm|1a1=Elkins|1y=1972|1p=76|2a1=Grant|2y=2008|2pp=410–411}} On being released, Garvey was taken by train to New Orleans, where around a thousand supporters saw him onto the ''SS Saramaca'' on 3 December.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=411}} The ship then stopped at [[Cristóbal, Colón|Cristóbal]] in Panama, where supporters again greeted him, but where the authorities refused his request to disembark.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=413}} He then transferred to the ''SS Santa Maria'', which took him to Kingston, Jamaica.{{sfn|Grant|2008|p=413}}