Editing Marcian (section)

==Reign==
===Conflict with the Huns===
[[File:451 CE, Europe.svg|right|thumb|A map of Europe in A.D. 451, showing the Hunnic confederation under Attila with a name, and the Roman Empire in purple|upright=2|alt=A colored drawing of Europe in 451 A.D., showing the borders of states at the time of Attila by different colors, with the Roman Empire in purple, and the Hunnic Confederation by name]]
Almost immediately after becoming emperor, Marcian revoked Theodosius' treaties with Attila and proclaimed the end of subsidies. He stated that he might grant gifts if Attila was friendly, but Attila would be repelled if he attempted to raid the Eastern Roman Empire. At this time Attila was preparing to invade the Western Roman Empire, under the guise of helping Emperor [[Valentinian&nbsp;III]] against the [[Visigoths]]. Attila reacted angrily to Marcian's proposal, demanding tribute, but did not alter his invasion plans. He led his horde from [[Pannonia]] in spring 451 into the Western Roman Empire.{{sfn|Friell|Williams|2005|p=84}} [[Flavius Aetius]], who was the supreme commander of the Western Roman army as {{lang|la|[[Comes et Magister Utriusque Militiae]]}}, organized a defense and called upon the Visigoths, [[Franks]], [[Burgundians]], Alans, Saxons, Celtic [[Armorica]]ns, and other tribal groups numbering about 60,000 to aid him. Attila's forces were made up of [[Gepids]], Alans, [[Sciri]], [[Heruli]], [[Rugii|Rugians]], along with some Franks, Burgundians, and [[Ostrogoths]].{{sfn|Friell|Williams|2005|p=85}}

Attila sacked [[Metz]] and attempted a siege of [[Orléans]], before meeting Aetius' forces at the [[Battle of the Catalaunian Plains]], in northeast [[Gaul]]. This battle involved around 100,000 men and resulted in very large losses on both sides. After the battle, Attila retreated to the [[Great Hungarian Plain]], and Aetius dismissed his coalition of tribes, sending them back to their own territories. In spring 452, Attila again launched a raid into Italy, which was almost entirely undefended. He was likely motivated by a desire for revenge, along with a need to raid to stabilize his tribal state, which was dependent upon raiding for loot and resources. Attila captured the city of [[Aquileia]] after a long and difficult siege,{{sfn|Friell|Williams|2005|p=86}} and [[looted|sacked]] it. He then raided across northern Italy, taking [[Mediolanum]] ([[Milan]]) and other important cities. There was much fear that Attila would attack [[Rome]] itself, the walls of which were weaker than those of some cities he had already captured. During this period, other than cutting his [[lines of communication]] and harassing his rear forces, Aetius did not launch a direct attack on Attila.{{sfn|Friell|Williams|2005|p=87}}

Despite the plunder he now had from capturing Aquileia, Milan, and other cities, Attila was quickly placed in a precarious situation, because of the actions of both Eastern and Western Rome. In Italy, he was seriously lacking in funds, having not received subsidies from either Eastern or Western Rome for two years. Constant warfare had depleted his forces. As well, Attila's homeland was threatened by the Eastern Empire which, despite the punitive raids he ordered, took the offensive against the Great Hungarian Plain in mid-452, attacking across the Danube and inflicting a defeat upon the Huns.{{sfn|Friell|Williams|2005|p=87}} The area attacked by the Eastern Romans was home to Ostrogoths and Gepids, two groups bitterly opposed to Hunnic rule, and was the [[breadbasket]] of the Hunnic Empire. The loss of food supply from Attila's own land coupled with a famine that Italy was suffering at the time, along with a plague that followed it, placed yet more strain upon Attila, allowing the Western Roman Empire to bribe him into retreating to his homeland. After returning to the Great Hungarian Plain, he threatened to invade the Eastern Empire the following spring and conquer it entirely.{{sfn|Friell|Williams|2005|p=87}}{{sfn|Thompson|1950|p=70}} Marcian and Aspar ignored his threats. They reasoned, based upon the previous treaties that Attila had broken, that he could not be permanently deterred even by tons of gold. The pair believed the gold would be better spent building up armies, not appeasing threats. Also, the rich Asian and African provinces, which were protected behind Constantinople, were secure enough to allow the Eastern Empire to retake any European provinces it might lose. This campaign never came to fruition, as Attila died unexpectedly in 453, either from [[hemorrhaging]] or alcoholic [[suffocation]], after celebrating a marriage to one of his many wives. After his death, his tribal confederation rapidly fell apart, starting first with rebellions of the Ostrogoths.{{sfn|Friell|Williams|2005|p=88}}

This fragmentation allowed the Eastern Empire to resume its policy of playing off barbarians against each other, to stop any one tribe from becoming too powerful. It is almost certain that the Gepid king [[Ardaric]] came to an agreement with Marcian. Ardaric had formed a coalition of the Rugians, Sciri, Heruli, and his own Gepids, which he led against the remaining Hunnic confederation. Ardaric, alongside the Ostrogoth leaders [[Theodemir (Ostrogothic king)|Theodemir]], [[Valamir]] and [[Videmir]], decisively defeated Attila's oldest son, [[Ellac]], at the [[Battle of Nedao]] in 455, where he was slain. After this battle, the Hunnic confederation could no longer sustain the cohesion of its previous days, although they still remained prominent.{{sfn|Friell|Williams|2005|p=89}} In the wake of the reduced power of the Hunnic Empire, Marcian accepted the Ostrogoths, who had established themselves in [[Pannonia Prima]] and [[Pannonia Valeria|Valeria]]—nominally two Western Roman provinces—as {{lang|la|[[foederati]]}}.{{sfn|Nathan|1998}}{{sfn|Friell|Williams|2005|pp=89–91}}{{sfn|Elton|2018|p=172}} This marked the continuation of the tacit abandonment of a [[Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes|rigid Danube barrier]], which had previously been manned by Roman {{lang|la|[[laeti]]}}, barbarians settled directly in Roman land in exchange for military service. For some time before Marcian, the {{lang|la|laeti}} had been replaced by {{lang|la|foederati}}, although the distinction between the two was increasingly breaking down. Marcian's successors would grant the status of {{lang|la|foederati}} to multiple peoples and ceding them lands in the recovered European provinces: the Rugians in eastern Thrace, Sciri in [[Lower Moesia]] and [[Scythia]], Gepids in [[Diocese of Dacia|Dacia]]. This network of subject peoples, who were generally reliable and manageable, was beneficial to the Eastern Empire. The tribal peoples generally kept each other's power in check without Roman intervention. They could also be induced to serve the empire against its enemies by way of gifts, subsidies, and treaties.{{sfn|Nathan|1998}}{{sfn|Friell|Williams|2005|pp=89–91}} With the Hunnic empire's diminished might after the death of Attila, Marcian enjoyed a relatively peaceful reign, although he won some small campaigns against the [[Saracens]] in [[Roman Syria|Syria]] and against the [[Blemmyes]] in [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]].{{sfn|Nathan|1998}}{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991|p=1296}}

===Religious policy===
[[File:Fourth ecumenical council of chalcedon - 1876.jpg|thumb|''Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon'', 1876&nbsp;painting by [[Vasily Surikov]]|alt=A wall painting of the Council of Chalcedon showing Marcian and Pulcheria seated on thrones.]]
During the 5th century, a central religious issue was the debate concerning how the human and divine nature of [[Jesus Christ]] were associated, following the [[Arian controversy]]. The [[Catechetical School of Alexandria|School of Alexandria]], including theologians such as [[Athanasius]], asserted the equality of Christ and God, and therefore focused upon the divinity of Christ. The [[School of Antioch]], including theologians such as [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]], determined not to lose the human aspect of Christ, focused upon his humanity.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=137}}

Shortly before Marcian became emperor, the [[Second Council of Ephesus]] was held in 449. The council stated that Jesus had one divine united nature, a position called {{lang|la|[[miaphysitism|miaphysis]]}}; this was rejected by the [[Pope]] and the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]] because of disputes on the matter of [[Christology]], as the Pope and Patriarch of Constantinople saw the belief in miaphysis as [[heretical]].{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=145}}{{sfn|Vasiliev|1980|pp=99 & 105}}{{sfn|Davis|2004|p=81}}

To repudiate the Second Council of Ephesus, Marcian convened a new council of the imperial church, deemed to pass [[ecumenical council|universally respected canons]], in 451. Pulcheria may have influenced this decision or even made the convention of a council a requirement during her negotiations with Aspar to marry Marcian. The council was to take place near Constantinople so that the government could watch the proceedings closely. Initially, it was to be held at the city of [[Nicaea]], which held enormous religious importance to the early church, as it was the site of its first council, the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325. However, Marcian successfully requested the transfer of the location to [[Chalcedon]]. This was closer to Constantinople and would allow him to respond quickly to any events along the Danube frontier. The [[Council of Chalcedon]] met in October 451. About 500 [[bishops]] attended it, most of them Eastern Roman, although two African bishops and two Papal legates sent by [[Pope Leo&nbsp;I]] attended.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=145}}{{sfn|Gallagher|2008|p=585}}{{sfn|Whitworth|2017|p=360}} This council condemned the Second Council of Ephesus and agreed that Jesus had a divine nature ({{lang|la|[[physis]]}}) and a human nature, united in one person ({{lang|la|[[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostasis]]}}), "without confusion, change, division, or separation."{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=146}}

The council also agreed to condemn the Coptic [[Pope Dioscorus&nbsp;I of Alexandria]], who had overseen the Second Council of Ephesus, and revoke the condemnations of [[Ibas of Edessa]] and [[Theodoret]], which had taken place during this council. The council also repeated the importance of the [[See of Constantinople]], placing it firmly in second place behind the See of Rome, and giving it the right to appoint bishops in the Eastern Roman Empire, over the objection of Pope Leo I;{{sfn|Nathan|1998}}{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=147}}{{sfn|Lee|2001|p=814}} the Patriarchs of Alexandria also objected to the elevation of the See of Constantinople.{{sfn|Bauer|2010|p=122}} The council ended in November 451, after which Marcian issued numerous [[edicts]] confirming the outcomes of the council;{{sfn|Nathan|1998}}{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=147}}{{sfn|Lee|2001|p=814}} showing that the outcome of the council was not universally accepted.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=148}} One such edict ordered the repression of [[Eutychianism|Eutychianists]], who did not believe in the hypostatic union of the two natures of Jesus, barring them from holding state offices, forbidding them from criticizing the Council of Chalcedon, and ordering their literature, along with that of the [[Nestorians]], to be burned.{{sfn|Bury|2012|p=380}}

The anti-Miaphysite resolutions of the council led to a large increase in civil disruption in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt, where the majority of the population was Miaphysitic. Several violent revolts were put down with military force after significant bloodshed, in Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch;{{Sfn|Vasiliev|1980|p=105}} as well as sending the military to suppress monks in [[Palaestina Prima|Palestine]]<!--Please note that this was the proper Roman name for the province and has no relation to the modern Israel–Palestine debates.--> and placing troops in [[Alexandria]] to ensure the installation of [[Proterius of Alexandria]], who was to replace the deposed Pope Dioscorus I.{{sfn|Nathan|1998}} According to the Byzantist [[Alexander Vasiliev (historian)|Alexander Vasiliev]], even after these revolts were put down, the popular dissatisfaction with the state church among the Miaphysite and Nestorian population remained, as the eastern provinces became increasingly convinced of their need for independence from the Eastern Roman Empire. Vasiliev states that this would lead to long-lasting disloyalty toward the Eastern Roman government among the eastern provinces, ultimately facilitating the loss of these provinces to the Sassanians and later to the [[Arabs]].{{Sfn|Vasiliev|1980|pp=105–106}} Another result of the council and the subsequent edicts was that many Christians who disagreed with the council, including many Nestorians, migrated to the [[Sassanian Empire]].{{sfn|Bauer|2010|pp=122–123}} The separation of the Miaphysites from the churches accepting Chalcedonian doctrine would be made final after the failed attempts of reconciliation under Emperor [[Justinian I]] ({{Reign|527|565}}), the Miaphysites splitting the [[Oriental Orthodox Churches]] from the main body of Christians.{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|pp=194–202}}

Marcian also funded Pulcheria's extensive building projects until her death in July 453. All of them focused on the construction of religious buildings,{{sfn|Nathan|1998}} including the [[Church of St. Mary of Blachernae (Istanbul)|Church of St. Mary of Blachernae]] and the [[Hodegon Monastery]].{{sfn|Grant|1985|p=306}} Marcian was compared to both [[Paul the Apostle]] and the Biblical king [[David]],{{sfn|Herrin|2009|p=11}} by the legates at the Council of Chalcedon.{{sfn|Bjornlie|2016|p=60}}

===Economic and legal policy===
At the beginning of Marcian's reign, the Eastern Roman treasury was almost bankrupt, the result of the huge tributes paid to Attila by Theodosius. Marcian reversed this near bankruptcy, not by levying new taxes, but by cutting expenditure.{{sfn|Bury|2012|pp=236–237}} Upon his accession, he declared a remission of all debts owed to the state.{{sfn|Nathan|1998}} Marcian attempted to improve the efficiency of the state in multiple ways.{{sfn|Bury|2012|pp=236–237}} He laid out legal reforms in his [[Novel (Roman law)|novels]], or codes of law, containing 20 laws, many of which were targeted at reducing the corruption and abuses of office that had existed during the reign of Theodosius; five of which are preserved in full.{{sfn|Jones|1986|p=217}}{{sfn|Pharr|Davidson|Pharr|2001|p=562}}

Marcian mandated that the office of [[praetorship]] (officer in charge of public games and works) could only be given to [[Byzantine Senate#Admission and composition|senators]] who resided in Constantinople, attempted to curb the practice of selling administrative offices, and decreed that [[Roman consul|consuls]] should be responsible for the maintenance of [[Valens Aqueduct|Constantinople's aqueducts]]. He repealed the {{lang|la|[[Follis (tax)|follis]]}}, a tax on senators' property that amounted to seven pounds of gold per annum.{{sfn|Bury|2012|pp=236–237}} Marcian removed the financial responsibilities of the consuls and praetors, held since the time of the [[Roman Republic]], to fund public sports and games or give wealth to the citizens of Constantinople, respectively. He further decreed that only a {{lang|la|[[vir illustris]]}} (a high-ranking man) could hold either office.{{sfn|Nathan|1998}} He also partially repealed a marriage law enacted by [[Constantine I]], which decreed that a man of senatorial status could not marry a slave, [[freedwoman]], actress, or woman of no social status ({{lang|la|[[Honestiores and humiliores|humilis]]}}), which had been created in an attempt to preserve the purity of the senatorial class. Marcian adjusted this law by declaring that the law should not exclude a woman of good character, regardless of her social status or wealth.{{sfn|Bury|2012|pp=236–237}} By the time of his death, Marcian's shrewd cutting of expenditures and his avoidance of large-scale wars left the Eastern Roman treasury with a surplus of {{convert|100,000|lb}} of gold.{{sfn|Nathan|1998}}

In 451, Marcian decreed that anyone who performed [[Paganism|pagan rites]] would lose their property and be condemned to death and that no pagan temples, which had previously been closed, could be reopened. To ensure this law was implemented, he set a penalty of {{convert|50|lb|kg}} of gold for any judge, governor or official who did not enforce the law.{{sfn|Evans|2002|p=66}}

===Politics===
[[File:Piatto di ardaburio, argento fuso, 434 d.c. (found in 1769) 03.JPG|thumb|A detail of the ''Missorium of Aspar'', depicting [[Aspar]] and his elder son [[Ardabur (consul 447)|Ardabur]] (c. 434).]]
When Marcian became emperor, he was influenced by [[Flavius Zeno]], [[Pulcheria]], and [[Aspar]]. Flavius Zeno died soon after Marcian ascended the throne, possibly as early as the end of 451,{{sfn|Nathan|1998}}{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=97}} and Pulcheria died in July 453, leaving Aspar as the only major influence in the court of the Eastern Roman Empire. This influence was enhanced by the promotion of his son Ardabur to {{lang|la|magister militum per Orientem}}.{{sfn|Nathan|1998}}{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=98}} It is unknown if Aspar and Ardabur influenced Marcian{{'}}s policies directly, but if so, they were extremely careful to avoid upsetting the ruling elites of Constantinople. Despite Aspar's great influence, the Eastern Roman elites retained much of their anti-barbarian sentiment.{{sfn|Nathan|1998}} Marcian's principal advisors were Pulcheria, [[Euphemius (Magister officiorum)|Euphemius]] the {{lang|la|[[magister officiorum]]}} (master of offices), [[Palladius (praetor)|Palladius]] the praetor, and [[Anatolius of Constantinople]].{{sfn|Grant|1985|p=305}} In 453, Marcian had his daughter from a previous marriage, [[Marcia Euphemia]], marry [[Anthemius]], an aristocrat and talented general.{{sfn|Nathan|1998}}{{sfn|Dzino|Parry|2017|p=258}}

Marcian patronized the Blues, who were one of the [[Chariot racing#Byzantine racing factions|two circus teams]], the other being the Greens. The two teams had become more like political parties than sports teams by his time, wielding large influence in the empire; both vied for power. After the Greens responded angrily to his patronage, Marcian censured them, forbidding any of them to hold any public office for three years. Marcian's patronage of the Blues may have had personal motivations, as the once powerful Chrysaphius had been favorable to the Greens.{{sfn|Nathan|1998}}{{sfn|Christophilopoulou|1986|p=286}}{{sfn|Bury|1889|p=85}}

===Foreign relations===
The Armenian king [[Vardan II Mamikonian]], who was leading a revolt against the Sassanian Empire, sent an embassy to Theodosius in 450, composed of his brother [[Hmayeak Mamikonian]], along with [[Atom Gnuni]], [[Vardan Amatuni]], and [[Meruzhan Artsruni (emissary)|Meruzhan Artsruni]], to ask for assistance. Theodosius received it favorably. Any plans were cut short by his death and the accession of Marcian.{{Sfn|Manoogian|1984|p=23}}{{Sfn|Lacey|2016|p=142}} Marcian was counseled by the diplomat [[Anatolius (consul)|Anatolius]] and {{lang|la|patricius}} [[Florentius (consul 429)|Florentius]] not to make war with the Sassanians, as it would engulf a large amount of the Eastern Roman military resources, and thus Marcian did not agree to help them.{{sfn|Jones|Martindale|Morris|1980|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Amirav|2015|p=55 & 93}}

King [[Gubazes I of Lazica]]—a Caucasian state in theory under Eastern Roman suzerainty—was attempting to form an alliance with the Sassanians to break free of Roman control in 456.{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2015|p=346}} Marcian's troops invaded Lazica and restored Roman rule.{{sfn|Elton|2018|p=174}} In 455, Marcian banned the export to barbarian tribes of weapons and the tools used to manufacture them.{{sfn|Holmes|Singleton|Jones|2001}}

===Relationship with the Western Roman Empire===
Marcian was elected without any consultation with the Western Roman Emperor [[Valentinian III]], a clear indication of further separation between the Eastern and Western Roman Empires than before his reign.{{sfn|Gallagher|2008|p=243}}{{sfn|Lee|2001|p=42}} Valentinian would later recognize Marcian as the Eastern Roman Emperor, although the date of this recognition is disputed; Lee states that Valentinian recognized Marcian in March 452,{{sfn|Lee|2001|p=43}} whereas historian [[Timothy E. Gregory]] states that Marcian was recognized by Valentinian on 30 March 451.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991}} Marcian{{'}}s appointment marked a further stage of separation between the Eastern and Western Roman Empires.{{sfn|Gallagher|2008|p=243}} One source, [[John of Antioch (chronicler)|John of Antioch's]] {{lang|la|Excerpta de insidiis}}, even suggest that Valentinian would have attempted to depose Marcian, but for Aetius{{'}} opposition.{{sfn|Lee|2001|p=43f}} Valentinian also did not recognize the Eastern Roman consuls for 451 or 452.{{sfn|McEvoy|2013|p=290, note 84}} The Western Roman chronicler [[Hydatius]] suggests that Marcian made Eastern Roman troops available to Valentinian to repel the Huns, confusingly led by a man named Aetius, which may simply be a muddling of Aetius' campaign against Attila and Marcian's campaign against the Huns on the Danube.{{sfn|McEvoy|2013|p=294}}

When Marcian granted part of Pannonia to the Ostrogoths, and the [[Tisza]] region to the Gepids, he was accused of encroaching upon the border of Western Roman land.{{sfn|Grant|1985|p=307}} Marcian avoided involving himself with the affairs of the Western Roman Empire when possible. When the Vandals [[Sack of Rome (455)|sacked Rome]] in 455, after [[Petronius Maximus]] assassinated Valentinian&nbsp;III and broke an [[engagement]] treaty with the Vandals, Marcian did not respond violently, possibly because of the influence of Aspar. He merely sent an envoy demanding that the Vandals return the [[Dowager Empress]], [[Licinia Eudoxia]] and her daughters by Valentinian III, [[Placidia]] and [[Eudocia (daughter of Valentinian&nbsp;III)|Eudocia]].{{sfn|Nathan|1998}} A likely false account is given that Marcian, while captured by the Vandals in his youth, was shaded by an eagle while the other prisoners suffered the hot sun. According to this account, the Vandal King Gaiseric recognized that Marcian would later be emperor. In exchange for being released, he made Marcian pledge not to attack the Vandals should he become emperor.{{efn|name=A|Propaganda involving the story of an eagle blocking the sun, and another figure recognizing they would be emperor, was used by both Byzantine emperors [[Philippicus]] and [[Basil&nbsp;I]].{{sfn|Lilie|2014|p=193}}}} This account originates from [[Priscus]], who served as an advisor to Marcian's confidant, Euphemius. Because of Euphemius' influence over foreign policy, some historians, such as [[Edward Arthur Thompson]], have suggested that this account was a part of official imperial propaganda, which was generated to excuse Marcian's lack of retribution towards the Vandals, and quell any discontent.{{sfn|Thompson|1950|p=68}} Marcian made several diplomatic attempts to have the prisoners returned, before finally beginning to plan an invasion of the Vandal's territory shortly before his death.{{sfn|Clover|1978|pp=193–194}} The historian [[Frank Clover]] has suggested that this sudden reversal of policy was caused by the marriage of Eudocia to [[Huneric]], the son of Gaiseric, which led to such pressure from Eastern Roman elites that Marcian was forced to begin preparations for war to ensure the return of the hostages. Around this time, Marcian made peace with Lazica, which would allow him to direct his attention elsewhere. The East Roman historian [[Theodorus Lector]] speaks of Marcian's sudden reversal of policy, and Evagrius Scholasticus, a Roman historian writing a century after the event, states that the Vandals released Licinia Eudoxia, Placidia, and Eudocia to Marcian after he threatened them with war, in either late 456 or early 457.{{sfn|Clover|1978|p=194}}{{sfn|Mathisen|1981|p=243}}

Marcian did not recognize any Western Emperor after Valentinian, denying Petronius Maximus, now Western Emperor, when he sent an embassy requesting it, and similarly refusing to recognize [[Avitus]], who succeeded Maximus.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991|p=1296}}{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991a|p=704}} Marcian's exact treatment of Avitus is debated. The Roman historian Hydatius states that in 455 Avitus sent ambassadors to Marcian "for the sake of unanimity of power," and that, "Marcian and Avitus make use of Roman power in concord". The exact usage of concord ({{lang|la|concordia}} in the original Latin) has led to debate among scholars. Some such as [[Thomas Hodgkin (historian)|Thomas Hodgkin]], [[J. B. Bury]], and [[William Bayless]] consider it grounds for the belief that Marcian may have recognized Avitus. Most scholars take a more conservative stance on it; [[Ernst Stein]] suggests that it is merely a reflection of West Roman propaganda, whereas [[Norman Baynes]] believes it indicates that Marcian was cordial to Avitus, neither hostile nor friendly.{{sfn|Mathisen|1981|p=237}}{{sfn|Baynes|1922|p=223}} Classicist [[Courtenay Edward Stevens]] interprets the phrase as meaning only that the meeting of the diplomats was amicable, rather than reflecting a relationship between the two states.{{sfn|Mathisen|1981|p=237}}

The historian [[Geoffrey Nathan]] suggests the fact that only two Western delegates attended the Council of Chalcedon points to a new level of Western Roman self-absorption in their own political and religious affairs. He mentions that the canon from this council delegating authority over the whole east to the See of Constantinople marks a religious separation. Authority over the Church in the Eastern Roman Empire would prove a point of contention between Rome and Constantinople, leading up to the [[East–West Schism]].{{sfn|Nathan|1998}}