Editing Madagascar (section)

===Kingdom of Madagascar===
{{Main|Merina Kingdom}}
[[File:Andrianampoinimerina HQ.jpg|thumb|King [[Andrianampoinimerina]] (1787–1810)]]
Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms<ref name="Ogot"/> and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King [[Andriamasinavalona]] divided it among his four sons. Following almost a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King [[Andrianampoinimerina]] (1787–1810).<ref name="Hodder">Hodder (1982), p. 59</ref> From his initial capital [[Ambohimanga]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/950 |title=Royal Hill of Ambohimanga |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=30 April 2011|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110629070952/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/950/|url-status=live |archive-date = 29 June 2011}}</ref> and later from the [[Rova of Antananarivo]], this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighbouring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King [[Radama I]] (1810–28), who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of [[Mauritius]] to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the [[London Missionary Society]] began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as [[James Cameron (missionary)|James Cameron]], [[David Jones (missionary)|David Jones]] and [[David Griffiths (missionary)|David Griffiths]], who established schools, transcribed the [[Malagasy language]] using the [[Latin alphabet|Roman alphabet]], translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.<ref name="Ade Ajayi 1998, pp. 413–422">Ade Ajayi (1998), pp.&nbsp;413–422</ref>

Radama's successor, Queen [[Ranavalona I]] (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of [[Christianity in Madagascar]] and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. [[William Ellis (British missionary)|William Ellis]] of the [[London Missionary Society]] described his visits made during her reign in his book ''Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856''. The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of ''[[Corvée|fanompoana]]'' (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 [[Merina]] soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of ''[[tangena]]'' was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, the ''tangena'' ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population.<ref name="Stats">{{cite journal | last = Campbell | first = Gwyn | date = October 1991 | title = The state and pre-colonial demographic history: the case of nineteenth-century Madagascar | journal = Journal of African History | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 415–445| doi = 10.1017/S0021853700031534 }}</ref> The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5&nbsp;million to 2.5&nbsp;million between 1833 and 1839.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Campbell |first = Gwyn |date = October 1991 |title = The state and pre-colonial demographic history: the case of nineteenth century Madagascar |journal = Journal of African History |volume = 23 |issue = 3 |pages = 415–445|doi = 10.1017/S0021853700031534 }}</ref>

Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were [[Jean Laborde]], an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and [[Joseph-François Lambert]], a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince [[Radama II]] signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies but was [[Radama II#Assassination plot|overthrown]] two years later by Prime Minister [[Rainivoninahitriniony]] and an alliance of ''[[Andriana]]'' (noble) and ''[[Hova (Madagascar)|Hova]]'' (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch.<ref name="LOC"/>

Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen, [[Rasoherina]], the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power-sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them.<ref>Oliver (1886), pp. 124–126</ref> Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister [[Rainilaiarivony]], who would go on to marry Queen [[Ranavalona II]] and Queen [[Ranavalona III]] in succession.<ref>Uwechue (1981), p. 473</ref> 

Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government.<ref name="TA910" /> Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers.<ref name="FFO522">Fage, Flint & Oliver (1986), pp. 522–524</ref> [[Polygamy]] was outlawed and Christianity declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace.<ref name="TA910">Thompson & Adloff (1965), pp. 9–10</ref> Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British [[common law]] and three European-style courts were established in the capital city.<ref name="FFO522" /> In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions.<ref name="FFO522" />