Editing Macedonia (ancient kingdom) (section)

===Rise of Macedon===
{{Main|Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II}}
{{further|Argead dynasty|Amyntas IV of Macedon|League of Corinth}}
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| footer = Left, a bust of [[Philip II of Macedon]] ({{reign|359|336|era=BC}}) from the [[Hellenistic period]], located at [[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]]. Right, another bust of Philip&nbsp;II, a 1st-century AD [[Hellenistic art#Later Roman copies|Roman copy]] of a [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic Greek]] original, now in the [[Vatican Museums]].
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[[File:Expansion of Macedon (English).svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Map of the Kingdom of Macedon at the death of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip{{nbsp}}II]] in 336{{nbsp}}BC (light blue), with the original territory that existed in 431{{nbsp}}BC (red outline), and [[dependent state]]s (yellow)]]

Philip II was twenty-four years old when he acceded to the throne in 359{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=166–167}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=467–472}}.</ref> Through the use of deft diplomacy, he was able to convince the Thracians under [[Berisades]] to cease their support of [[Pausanias (pretender)|Pausanias]], a pretender to the throne, and the Athenians to halt their support of [[Argaeus II of Macedon|another pretender]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=167–168}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=467–472}}.</ref> He achieved these by bribing the Thracians and their [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonian]] allies and establishing a treaty with Athens that relinquished his claims to Amphipolis.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=167–168}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=467–472}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=38}}.</ref> He was also able to make peace with the Illyrians who [[Battle of Erigon Valley|had threatened his borders]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=167}}.</ref>

Philip II spent his initial years radically transforming the [[Ancient Macedonian army|Macedonian army]]. A reform of its organization, equipment, and training, including the introduction of the [[Macedonian phalanx]] armed with [[Pike (weapon)|long pikes]] (i.e. the ''[[sarissa]]''), proved immediately successful when tested against his Illyrian and Paeonian enemies.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=168}}.</ref> Confusing accounts in ancient sources have led modern scholars to debate how much Philip{{nbsp}}II's royal predecessors may have contributed to these reforms and the extent to which his ideas were influenced by his [[Adolescence|adolescent]] years of captivity in Thebes as a political hostage during the [[Theban hegemony]], especially after meeting with the general [[Epaminondas]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=168–169}}.</ref>

The Macedonians, like the other Greeks, traditionally practiced [[monogamy]], but Philip{{nbsp}}II practiced [[polygamy]] and married seven wives with [[Cleopatra Eurydice|perhaps only one]] that did not involve the loyalty of his aristocratic subjects or new allies.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=169–170, 179}}. <br />Müller is skeptical about the claims of [[Plutarch]] and [[Athenaeus]] that Philip{{nbsp}}II of Macedon married [[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon]], a younger woman, purely out of love or due to his own [[midlife crisis]]. Cleopatra was the daughter of the general [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]], who along with his father-in-law [[Parmenion]] were given command posts in [[Asia Minor]] (modern [[Turkey]]) soon after this wedding. Müller also suspects that this marriage was one of political convenience meant to ensure the loyalty of an influential Macedonian noble house.</ref> His first marriages were to [[Phila of Elimeia]] of the Upper Macedonian aristocracy as well as the Illyrian princess [[Audata]] to ensure a marriage alliance.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=169}}.</ref> To establish an alliance with Larissa in Thessaly, he married the Thessalian noblewoman [[Philinna]] in 358{{nbsp}}BC, who bore him a son who would later rule as [[Philip III Arrhidaeus]] ({{reign|323|317|era=BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=170}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|p=62}}.</ref> In 357{{nbsp}}BC, he married [[Olympias]] to secure an alliance with [[Arybbas of Epirus|Arybbas]], the [[King of Epirus]] and the [[Molossians]]. This marriage would bear a son who would later rule as Alexander{{nbsp}}III (better known as [[Alexander the Great]]) and claim descent from the legendary [[Achilles]] by way of his [[Aeacidae|dynastic heritage from Epirus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=170–171}}; {{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=187}}.</ref> It is unclear whether or not the Achaemenid Persian kings influenced Philip{{nbsp}}II's practice of polygamy, although his predecessor Amyntas{{nbsp}}III had three sons with a possible second wife Gygaea: Archelaus, Arrhidaeus, and [[Menelaus (son of Amyntas III)|Menelaus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=167, 169}}; {{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=161}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II had Archelaus put to death in 359{{nbsp}}BC, while Philip{{nbsp}}II's other two half brothers fled to Olynthos, serving as a ''[[casus belli]]'' for the [[Olynthian War]] (349–348{{nbsp}}BC) against the Chalcidian League.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=169, 173–174}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=84}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=38–39}}.</ref>

While Athens was preoccupied with the [[Social War (357–355 BC)]], Philip{{nbsp}}II retook Amphipolis from them in 357{{nbsp}}BC and the following year recaptured Pydna and Potidaea, the latter of which he handed over to the Chalcidian League as promised in a treaty.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=470–472}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=74–75}}.</ref> In 356{{nbsp}}BC, he took [[Crenides (Macedonia)|Crenides]], refounding it as [[Philippi]], while his general [[Parmenion]] defeated the Illyrian king [[Grabos II]] of the [[Grabaei]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=172}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|p=272}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=42}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=470–472}}.</ref> During the 355–354{{nbsp}}BC siege of Methone, Philip{{nbsp}}II lost his right eye to an arrow wound, but managed to capture the city and treated the inhabitants cordially, unlike the Potidaeans, who had been enslaved.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=171–172}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=63, 176–181}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=185–187}}. <br />Cawkwell contrarily provides the date of this siege as 354–353 BC.</ref>

Philip II then involved Macedonia in the [[Third Sacred War]] (356–346{{nbsp}}BC). It began when [[Phocis (ancient region)|Phocis]] captured and plundered the temple of [[Apollo]] at [[Delphi]] instead of submitting unpaid fines, causing the [[Amphictyonic League]] to declare war on Phocis and a [[civil war]] among the members of the [[Thessalian League]] aligned with either Phocis or Thebes.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=171–172}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=8, 20–22, 26–29}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II's initial campaign against [[Pherae]] in Thessaly in 353{{nbsp}}BC at the behest of Larissa ended in two disastrous defeats by the Phocian general [[Onomarchus]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=172–173}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=60, 185}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|p=272}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=63–64, 176–181}}. <br />Conversely, Buckler provides the date of this initial campaign as 354{{nbsp}}BC, while affirming that the second Thessalian campaign ending in the [[Battle of Crocus Field]] occurred in 353{{nbsp}}BC.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II in turn defeated Onomarchus in 352{{nbsp}}BC at the [[Battle of Crocus Field]], which led to Philip{{nbsp}}II's election as leader (''[[archon]]'') of the Thessalian League, provided him a seat on the Amphictyonic Council, and allowed for a marriage alliance with Pherae by wedding [[Nicesipolis]], niece of the tyrant [[Jason of Pherae]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=173}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=62, 66–68}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=74–75, 78–80}}; {{harvnb|Worthington|2008|pp=61–63}}.</ref>

Philip II had some early involvement with the Achaemenid Empire, especially by supporting [[satraps]] and mercenaries who rebelled against the central authority of the Achaemenid king. The satrap of [[Hellespontine Phrygia]] [[Artabazos II]], who was in rebellion against [[Artaxerxes III]], was able to take refuge as an exile at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC. He was accompanied in exile by his family and by his mercenary general [[Memnon of Rhodes]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Howe |first1=Timothy |last2=Brice |first2=Lee L. |title=Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean |date=2015 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-28473-9 |page=170 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=248DCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170}}</ref><ref name="EDC">{{cite book |last1=Carney |first1=Elizabeth Donnelly |title=Women and Monarchy in Macedonia |date=2000 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-3212-9 |page=101 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbI2hZBy_EkC&pg=PA101}}</ref> [[Barsine]], daughter of Artabazos, and future wife of Alexander the Great, grew up at the Macedonian court.<ref name="EDC"/>

After campaigning against the Thracian ruler [[Cersobleptes]], in 349{{nbsp}}BC, Philip{{nbsp}}II began his war against the Chalcidian League, which had been reestablished in 375{{nbsp}}BC following a temporary disbandment.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=173}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Schwahn|1931|loc=col. 1193–1194}}.</ref> Despite an Athenian intervention by [[Charidemus]],<ref>{{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=86}}.</ref> Olynthos was captured by Philip{{nbsp}}II in 348{{nbsp}}BC, and its inhabitants were [[Slavery in ancient Greece|sold into slavery]], including some [[Athenian citizenship|Athenian citizens]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=173–174}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=85–86}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=474–475}}.</ref> The Athenians, especially in a series of speeches by [[Demosthenes]] known as the ''[[Olynthiacs]]'', were unsuccessful in persuading their allies to counterattack and in 346{{nbsp}}BC concluded a treaty with Macedonia [[Peace of Philocrates|known as the Peace]] of [[Philocrates]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=173–174}}; {{harvnb|Worthington|2008|pp=75–78}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=96–98}}.</ref> The treaty stipulated that Athens would relinquish claims to Macedonian coastal territories, the Chalcidice, and Amphipolis in return for the release of the enslaved Athenians as well as guarantees that Philip{{nbsp}}II would not attack Athenian settlements in the [[Thracian Chersonese]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=174}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=98–101}}.</ref> Meanwhile, Phocis and [[Thermopylae]] were captured by Macedonian forces, the [[Pythia|Delphic temple]] robbers were executed, and Philip{{nbsp}}II was awarded the two Phocian seats on the Amphictyonic Council and the position of [[master of ceremonies]] over the [[Pythian Games]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=174–175}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=95, 104, 107–108}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|pp=275–277}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=478–479}}.</ref> Athens initially opposed his membership on the council and refused to attend the games in protest, but they eventually accepted these conditions, perhaps after some persuasion by Demosthenes in his oration ''[[On the Peace]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=175}}.</ref>
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| footer = Left, a ''Niketerion'' (victory medallion) bearing the effigy of king [[Philip II of Macedon]], 3rd century{{nbsp}}AD, probably minted during the reign of [[Roman Emperor]] [[Alexander Severus]]. Right, the ruins of the [[Philippeion]] at [[Olympia, Greece]], which was built by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to celebrate his victory at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]] in 338{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=227}}.</ref>
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Over the next few years, Philip II reformed local governments in Thessaly, campaigned against the Illyrian ruler [[Pleuratus I]], deposed Arybbas in [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] in favor of his brother-in-law [[Alexander I of Epirus|Alexander{{nbsp}}I]] (through Philip{{nbsp}}II's marriage to Olympias), and defeated Cersebleptes in Thrace. This allowed him to extend Macedonian control over the [[Hellespont]] in anticipation of an invasion into [[Classical Anatolia|Achaemenid Anatolia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=175–176}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=114–117}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|p=277}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|p=482}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=44}}.</ref> In 342{{nbsp}}BC, Philip{{nbsp}}II conquered [[History of Plovdiv|a Thracian city]] in what is now [[Bulgaria]] and renamed it [[Philippopolis (Thracia)|Philippopolis]] (modern [[Plovdiv]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Mollov|Georgiev|2015|p=76}}.</ref> War broke out with Athens in 340{{nbsp}}BC while Philip{{nbsp}}II was engaged in two ultimately unsuccessful sieges of [[Perinthus]] and [[Byzantion]], followed by a successful campaign against the Scythians along the [[Danube]] and Macedonia's involvement in the [[Fourth Sacred War]] against [[Amphissa (city)|Amphissa]] in 339{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=176}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=136–142}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=82–83}}.</ref> Thebes ejected a Macedonian garrison from [[Nicaea, Locris|Nicaea (near Thermopylae)]], leading Thebes to join Athens, [[Megara]], Corinth, [[Achaea]], and [[Euboea]] in a final confrontation against Macedonia at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]] in 338{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=176–177}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=143–148}}.</ref> After the Macedonian victory at Chaeronea, Philip{{nbsp}}II installed an [[oligarchy]] in Thebes, yet was lenient toward Athens, wishing to utilize their navy in a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=177}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=167–168}}.</ref> He was then chiefly responsible for the formation of the [[League of Corinth]] that included the major Greek city-states except Sparta. Despite the Kingdom of Macedonia's official exclusion from the league, in 337{{nbsp}}BC, Philip{{nbsp}}II was elected as the leader (''[[hegemon]]'') of its council (''[[synedrion]]'') and the [[commander-in-chief]] (''[[strategos]] [[autokrator]]'') of a forthcoming campaign to invade the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=177–179}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=167–171}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=16}} for further details.</ref> Philip's plan to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor<ref>{{cite book|last1=Davis Hanson|first1=Victor|title=Makers of Ancient Strategy: From the Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome|url=https://archive.org/details/makersancientstr00hans|url-access=limited|date=2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-13790-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/makersancientstr00hans/page/n131 119]|quote=Afterwards he [Alexander] revived his father's League of Corinth, and with it his plan for a pan-Hellenic invasion of Asia to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks, especially the Athenians, in the Greco-Persian Wars and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor.}}</ref> as well as perhaps the panhellenic fear of another Persian invasion of Greece, contributed to his decision to invade the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=348, 351}}</ref> The Persians offered aid to Perinthus and Byzantion in 341–340{{nbsp}}BC, highlighting Macedonia's strategic need to secure Thrace and the Aegean Sea against increasing Achaemenid encroachment, as the Persian king [[Artaxerxes III]] further consolidated his control over satrapies in [[Geography of Anatolia|western Anatolia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=347–349}}</ref> The latter region, yielding far more wealth and valuable resources than the Balkans, was also coveted by the Macedonian king for its sheer economic potential.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=351}}</ref>

When Philip II married [[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon|Cleopatra Eurydice]], niece of general [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]], talk of providing new potential heirs at the wedding feast infuriated Philip{{nbsp}}II's son Alexander, a veteran of the Battle of Chaeronea, and his mother Olympias.<ref name="muller 179–180 cawkwell 170"/> They fled together to Epirus before Alexander was recalled to Pella by Philip{{nbsp}}II.<ref name="muller 179–180 cawkwell 170">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=179–180}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=170}}.</ref> When Philip{{nbsp}}II arranged a marriage between his son Arrhidaeus and [[Ada of Caria]], daughter of [[Pixodarus]], the Persian satrap of [[Caria]], Alexander intervened and proposed to marry Ada instead. Philip{{nbsp}}II then cancelled the wedding altogether and exiled Alexander's advisors [[Ptolemy I|Ptolemy]], [[Nearchus]], and [[Harpalus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=180–181}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=14}} for further details.</ref> To reconcile with Olympias, Philip{{nbsp}}II had their daughter [[Cleopatra of Macedon|Cleopatra]] marry Olympias' brother (and Cleopatra's uncle) Alexander{{nbsp}}I of Epirus, but Philip{{nbsp}}II was assassinated by his bodyguard, [[Pausanias of Orestis]], during their wedding feast and succeeded by Alexander in 336{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=181–182}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=186}}; see {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=3–5}} for details of the arrests and judicial trials of other suspects in the conspiracy to assassinate [[Philip II of Macedon]].</ref>