Editing La Tène culture (section)

=== Settlements ===
{{See also|Oppidum}}

[[File:Oppidium Manching Osttor Modell.jpg|thumb|Model of the main gate at the [[Oppidum of Manching|Manching oppidum]], Germany<ref>{{cite web |url=https://qph.cf2.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-ba2eda3c70d551c10d0a90662b5b36bf |title=Digital reconstruction of the Manching oppidum |website=www.geo.de/magazine/geo-epoche/4783-rtkl-leseprobe-die-bedrohte-metropole}}</ref>|251x251px]]

Initially La Tène people lived in open settlements that were dominated by the chieftains' hill forts. The development of walled towns and cities—known as ''[[Oppidum|oppida]]''—appears during the mid-La Tène culture in the 2nd century BC. The name of ''oppida'' (singular ''oppidum'') was given by [[Julius Caesar]] to the Celtic towns and cities that he encountered during the conquest of Gaul.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://cdn.preterhuman.net/texts/history/02%20Ancient%20Europe%201000%20AD.pdf |title=Ancient Europe, Vol. II |date=2004 |publisher=Thomson-Gale |last1=Bogucki |first1=Peter |chapter=Oppida in Britain |pages=154}}</ref> Oppida were characterized by very large surface areas (up to hundreds of hectares) and were defended by often massive ramparts and walls.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Oxford_Handbook_of_the_European_Iron/hOvXEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover |title=The Oxford Handbook of the European Iron Age |chapter=21: Urbanization and Oppida |date=2023 |publisher=Oxford University Press |last=Fichtl |first=Stephan |pages=717-741}}</ref> They are often described as 'the first cities north of the Alps', though this description has also been applied to earlier settlements of the [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] and [[Urnfield culture|Urnfield]] periods.<ref name="Fernández-Götz 2018 117–162">{{Cite journal |last=Fernández-Götz |first=Manuel |date=2018 |title=Urbanization in Iron Age Europe: Trajectories, Patterns, and Social Dynamics |journal=Journal of Archaeological Research |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=117–162 |doi=10.1007/s10814-017-9107-1 |s2cid=254594968 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=20.500.11820/74e98a7e-45fb-40d5-91c4-727229ba8cc7}}</ref> Oppida served as centres of craft production and commerce and were also important political and religious centres, with major oppida functioning as the capitals of Celtic states.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Oxford_Handbook_of_the_European_Iron/hOvXEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover |title=The Oxford Handbook of the European Iron Age |chapter=21: Urbanization and Oppida |date=2023 |publisher=Oxford University Press |last=Fichtl |first=Stephan |pages=717-741}}</ref>

Oppida appeared more or less simultaneously from the Atlantic to central Europe in the second century BC.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Oxford_Handbook_of_the_European_Iron/hOvXEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover |title=The Oxford Handbook of the European Iron Age |chapter=21: Urbanization and Oppida |date=2023 |publisher=Oxford University Press |last=Fichtl |first=Stephan |pages=717-741}}</ref> More than 180 oppida are known today, stretching from France in the west to Hungary in the east. Oppida-like settlements are also known from Britain and northern Spain.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004414365/BP000202002.xml |title=Chapter 2: A World of 200 Oppida: Pre-Roman Urbanism in Temperate Europe |date=2020| publisher=Brill |last=Fernandez-Gotz |first=Manuel}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://cdn.preterhuman.net/texts/history/02%20Ancient%20Europe%201000%20AD.pdf |title=Ancient Europe, Vol. II |date=2004 |publisher=Thomson-Gale |last1=Bogucki |first1=Peter |chapter=Oppida in Britain |pages=157}}</ref> 

[[File:Oppida map 2.jpg|thumb|251x251px|Distribution of fortified [[Oppidum|oppida]]]]

Many oppida had planned layouts and some had standardised building designs, indicating a high level of central organization.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Oxford_Handbook_of_the_European_Iron/hOvXEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover |title=The Oxford Handbook of the European Iron Age |chapter=21: Urbanization and Oppida |date=2023 |publisher=Oxford University Press |last=Fichtl |first=Stephan |pages=717-741}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Vandemoortele |first=Kathleen |date=2011 |title=Late La Tene oppida in West and Central Europe |url=https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/54456/ |location=Cardiff University |degree=PhD |pages=114}}</ref> At the [[oppidum of Manching]] in Germany all the buildings were constructed with the same standardised measurements, and a metal measuring rod conforming to this standard was found within the settlement.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Vandemoortele |first=Kathleen |date=2011 |title=Late La Tene oppida in West and Central Europe |url=https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/54456/ |location=Cardiff University |degree=PhD |pages=114}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Metrological-research-into-the-foot-measurement-in-Schubert-Schubert/f3a78310cded4020a93ac987c431f5ea6dd419b0 |journal=Complutum |volume=4 |date=1993 |pages=227-236|title=Metrological research into the foot measurement found in the celtic oppidum of Manching}}</ref> Similar standards have been identified at multiple other oppida.<ref name=":0" /> The layout and structure of oppidum buildings demonstrates a knowledge of geometric principles that suggests the role of specialized craftsmen, surveyors or master builders in their construction.<ref name=":0">{{cite thesis |last=
Wassong |first=Rémy  |date=2018 |title=Architectures et métrologie en Europe celtique entre le VIIe et le Ier siècle avant notre ère |url=https://theses.hal.science/tel-02965061/|location=Strasbourg University |degree=PhD |pages=317-357}}</ref> Large buildings inside the oppida included temples, assembly spaces and other public buildings.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fernandez-Gotz |first=Manuel |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004414365/BP000202002.xml |title=Chapter 2: A World of 200 Oppida: Pre-Roman Urbanism in Temperate Europe |date=2020 |publisher=Brill}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hantrais |first1=Juliette |last2=Barral |first2=Philippe |last3=Nouvel |first3=Pierre |last4=Thivet |first4=Matthieu |last5=Joly |first5=Martine |date=2020 |title=The PC15 Building: a Wood-Built Public Place at the Center of the Oppidum of Bibracte (France) |url=https://www.academia.edu/42644330 |journal=Chronika |volume=10 |pages=44–53}}</ref> At the oppidum of [[Bibracte]] a monumental stone basin was constructed in the centre of the oppidum based on a precise geometric design with an astronomical alignment.<ref name=":02">{{cite book |last1=Almagro-Gorbea |first1=Martin |url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CMPL/article/view/CMPL9191220239A |title=El Estanque Monumentale de Bibracte |last2=Gran-Aymerich |first2=Jean |date=January 1991 |editor-last1=Almagro-Gorbea |editor-first1=Martin |pages=239–240 |chapter=Summary |editor-last2=Gran-Aymerich |editor-first2=Jean}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Almagro-Gorbea |first1=Martin |url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CMPL/article/view/CMPL9191220283A |title=El Estanque Monumentale de Bibracte |date=January 1991 |editor-last1=Almagro-Gorbea |editor-first1=Martin |pages=283–286 |chapter=La orientación topoastronómica |editor-last2=Gran-Aymerich |editor-first2=Jean}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=White |first1=Raymond |url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CMPL/article/view/CMPL9191220275A |title=El Estanque Monumentale de Bibracte |date=January 1991 |editor-last1=Almagro-Gorbea |editor-first1=Martin |pages=275–277 |chapter=Determining the orientation of Le Bassin Monumentale de Bibracte |editor-last2=Gran-Aymerich |editor-first2=Jean}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://journal.equinoxpub.com/JSA/article/view/10650 |journal=Journal of Skyscape Archaeology |volume=4 |issue=2 |date=2018 |title=The Monumental Basin of Mont Beuvray and its Possible Orientation towards the Constellation of Gemini |last1=Maumené |first1=Claude |pages=229–245 |doi=10.1558/jsa.36228}}</ref>

La Tène buildings were typically built of wood though stone was used in massive quantities for the construction of oppida walls, known as [[Murus gallicus|''Murus Gallicus'']].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Celtic World |date=1995 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415146272 |editor-last1=Green |editor-first1=Miranda |chapter=5: Fortifications and defence}}</ref> Some oppida walls were several kilometres long.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fernandez-Gotz |first=Manuel |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004414365/BP000202002.xml |title=Chapter 2: A World of 200 Oppida: Pre-Roman Urbanism in Temperate Europe |date=2020 |publisher=Brill}}</ref> The construction and effectiveness of these walls was described by [[Julius Caesar]] in his account of the [[Gallic Wars]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Julius Caesar, ''Gallic War'', 7.23 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0001%3Abook%3D7%3Achapter%3D23 |website=Perseus Digital Library}}</ref> 

Major oppida were connected by a network of roads.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ERieBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT100&lpg=PT100&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=A Brief History of the Celts| date=2003 |last=Ellis |first=Peter |publisher=Constable |isbn=9781841197906}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/mar/15/britannia-roman-roads-iron-age |website=theguardian.com |title=Britannia Superior: Why Roman roads may not be quite as Roman as we think |date=2011}}</ref> Wooden bridges and [[Causeway|causeways]] are also known from archaeological remains and historical accounts.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGd2npX8lpkC&pg=PA254&lpg=PA254&dq=%22gallic%2Broads%22%2Bbridges&source=bl&ots=JdckJgsk8g&sig=zElnrMkFaj0KVHqRzECuXyVDwAE&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjbhN-mz_nbAhUkJMAKHY9fA6QQ6AEIRzAI#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Roman Remains of Northern and Eastern France: A Guidebook |pages=254 |publisher=Routledge |date=2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/La_Tene_Culture/ |website=worldhistory.org |title=La Tène Culture |date=2021 |last1=Cartwright |first=Mark}}</ref> 

A significant number of oppida developed into Roman cities following the expansion of the Roman empire.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Oxford_Handbook_of_the_European_Iron/hOvXEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover |title=The Oxford Handbook of the European Iron Age |chapter=21: Urbanization and Oppida |date=2023 |publisher=Oxford University Press |last=Fichtl |first=Stephan |pages=717-741}}</ref> These include [[Besançon|Vesontio]] (Besancon), [[Durocortorum|Durocororum]] (Reims), [[Lutetia]] (Paris) and [[Avaricum]] (Bourges) among others.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Celtic World |date=1995 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415146272 |editor-last1=Green |editor-first1=Miranda |chapter=10: The First Towns  |pages=159-173}}</ref>