Editing Journalism (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of journalism}}

=== Antiquity ===
While publications reporting the news to the general public in a standardized fashion only began to appear in the 17th century and later, governments as early as [[Han dynasty|Han dynasty China]] made use of regularly published news bulletins.<ref>Hartmut Walravens: "The Early East Asian Press in the Eyes of the West. Some bibliographical notes", World Library and Information Congress, 72nd General Conference and Council of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), 20–24 August 2006, Seoul, Korea, p. 2</ref> Similar publications were established in the [[Republic of Venice]] in the 16th century.<ref>Infelise, Mario. "Roman Avvisi: Information and Politics in the Seventeenth Century." Court and Politics in Papal Rome, 1492–1700. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]], 2002. 212, 214, 216–17</ref> These bulletins, however, were intended only for government officials, and thus were not journalistic news publications in the modern sense of the term.

=== Early modern newspapers ===
As mass-printing technologies like the [[printing press]] spread, newspapers were established to provide increasingly literate audiences with the news. The first references to privately owned newspaper publishers in China date to the late [[Ming dynasty]] in 1582.<ref>[[Timothy Brook (historian)|Brook, Timothy]]. (1998). ''[[The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China]]''. Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-22154-0}} (Paperback). p. xxi.</ref> [[Johann Carolus]]'s ''Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien'', published in 1605 in [[Strasbourg]], is often recognized as the first newspaper in Europe.

[[Freedom of the press]] was formally established in Great Britain in 1695, with [[Alan Rusbridger]], former editor of ''[[The Guardian]]'', stating: "licensing of the press in Britain was abolished in 1695. Remember how the freedoms won here became a model for much of the rest of the world, and be conscious how the world still watches us to see how we protect those freedoms."<ref>{{cite news|title=Leveson Inquiry: British press freedom is a model for the world, editor tells inquiry|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/journalists/gordon-rayner/8812486/Leveson-Inquiry-British-press-freedom-is-a-model-for-the-world-editor-tells-inquiry.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007183949/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/journalists/gordon-rayner/8812486/Leveson-Inquiry-British-press-freedom-is-a-model-for-the-world-editor-tells-inquiry.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 October 2011|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=October 14, 2017}}</ref> The first successful English daily, the ''[[Daily Courant]]'', was published from 1702 to 1735.<ref>{{cite web |title=First Journalism School |publisher=University of Missouri Press |location=Columbia |page=1}}</ref> While journalistic enterprises were started as private ventures in some regions, such as the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the [[British Empire]], other countries such as France and [[Prussia]] kept tighter control of the press, treating it primarily as an outlet for government propaganda and subjecting it to uniform censorship. Other governments, such as the [[Russian Empire]], were even more distrusting of the journalistic press and effectively banned journalistic publications until the mid-19th century.<ref>Nurit Schleifman, "A Russian Daily Newspaper and Its New Readership:" Severnaia Pchela", 1825–1840." ''Cahiers du monde russe et sovietique'' (1987): 127–44</ref> As newspaper publication became a more and more established practice, publishers would increase publication to a weekly or daily rate. Newspapers were more heavily concentrated in cities that were centres of trade, such as [[Amsterdam]], London, and [[Berlin]]. The first newspapers in Latin America would be established in the mid-to-late 19th century.

==== News media and the revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries ====
Newspapers played a significant role in mobilizing popular support in favor of the liberal revolutions of the late 18th and 19th centuries. In the [[Thirteen Colonies|American Colonies]], newspapers motivated people to revolt against British rule by publishing grievances against the British crown and republishing pamphlets by revolutionaries such as [[Thomas Paine]],<ref>William Sloan and Julie Hedgepeth Williams, ''The early American press, 1690–1783'' (1994)</ref><ref>Vaughn, ed., ''Encyclopedia of American Journalism'' (2008), pp. 17–21</ref> while [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|loyalist]] publications motivated support against the [[American Revolution]].<ref>Carol Sue Humphrey, ''This popular engine: New England newspapers during the American Revolution, 1775–1789'' (1992)</ref> News publications in the United States would remain proudly and publicly [[Partisan (political)|partisan]] throughout the 19th century.<ref>Richard L. Kaplan, ''Politics and the American press: The rise of objectivity, 1865–1920'' (Cambridge University Press, 2002) p. 78.</ref> In France, political newspapers sprang up during the [[French Revolution]], with ''[[L'Ami du peuple]]'', edited by [[Jean-Paul Marat]], playing a particularly famous role in arguing for the rights of the revolutionary lower classes. [[Napoleon]] would reintroduce strict censorship laws in 1800, but after his reign print publications would flourish and play an important role in political culture.<ref>Keith Michael Baker, et al., ''The French Revolution and the Creation of Modern Political Culture: The transformation of the political culture, 1789–1848'' (1989).</ref> As part of the [[Revolutions of 1848]], radical liberal publications such as the ''Rheinische Zeitung, Pesti Hírlap,'' and ''[[Morgenbladet]]'' would motivate people toward deposing the [[aristocratic]] governments of Central Europe.<ref>Sperber, Jonathan, ''Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848'' (Princeton, 1991), p. 99;</ref> Other liberal publications played a more moderate role: ''The Russian Bulletin'' praised [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II of Russia's]] liberal reforms in the late 19th century, and supported increased political and economic freedoms for peasants as well as the establishment of a [[Duma|parliamentary system]] in Russia.<ref>Daniel Balmuth, ''"The Russian Bulletin," 1863–1917: A Liberal Voice in Tsarist Russia'' (2000)</ref> Farther to the left, [[Socialism|socialist]] and [[Communism|communist]] newspapers had wide followings in France, Russia and Germany despite being outlawed by the government.<ref>Charles A. Ruus, ''Fighting Words: Imperial Censorship and the Russian Press, 1804–1906'' (1982).</ref><ref>Franz Osterroth, Dieter Schuster: ''Chronik der deutschen Sozialdemokratie.'' J.H.W. Dietz Nachf., Hannover 1963, S. 50. fes.de. German text</ref><ref>[[John Tebbel]] (2003). "Print Media. France". ''Encyclopedia Americana''. Retrieved 1 November 2014.</ref>

=== Early 20th century ===
====China====
{{Further|History of journalism#China}}
Journalism in China before 1910 primarily served the international community. The ''[[1911 Revolution|overthrow of the old imperial regime in 1911]]'' produced a surge in Chinese nationalism, an end to censorship, and a demand for professional, nation-wide journalism.<ref>Stephen MacKinnon, "Toward a History of the Chinese Press in the Republican Period", ''Modern China'' 23#1 (1997) pp. 3–32</ref> All the major cities launched such efforts. By the late 1920s, however, there was a much greater emphasis on advertising and expanding circulation, and much less interest in the sort of advocacy journalism that had inspired the revolutionaries.<ref>Timothy B. Weston, "China, professional journalism, and liberal internationalism in the era of the First World War." ''Pacific Affairs'' 83.2 (2010): 327–47.</ref>

====France====
{{Main|History of French journalism}}
The Parisian newspapers were largely stagnant after the ''[[First World War]]''; circulation inched up to six million a day from five million in 1910. The major postwar success story was ''[[Paris-Soir|Paris Soir]]''; which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation, and serious articles to build prestige. By 1939 its circulation was over 1.7 million, double that of its nearest rival the tabloid ''Le Petit Parisien.'' In addition to its daily paper ''Paris Soir'' sponsored a highly successful women's magazine ''Marie-Claire.'' Another magazine ''[[Paris Match|Match]]'' was modeled after the photojournalism of the American magazine ''Life.''
<ref>Hutton 2:692–94</ref>

====Great Britain====
{{Main|History of journalism in the United Kingdom}}
By 1900 popular journalism in Britain aimed at the largest possible audience, including the working class, had proven a success and made its profits through advertising. [[Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe]] (1865–1922), "More than anyone... shaped the modern press. Developments he introduced or harnessed remain central: broad contents, exploitation of advertising revenue to subsidize prices, aggressive marketing, subordinate regional markets, independence from party control.<ref>[[P. P. Catterall]] and [[Colin Seymour-Ure]], "Northcliffe, Viscount." in John Ramsden, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Twentieth-Century British Politics'' (2002) p. 475.</ref> His ''[[Daily Mail]]'' held the world record for daily circulation until his death. Prime Minister [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]] quipped it was "written by office boys for office boys".<ref>''Oxford Dictionary of Quotations'' (1975).</ref>

Described as "the scoop of the century", as a rookie journalist for ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' in 1939 [[Clare Hollingworth]] was the first to report the outbreak of [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Clare Hollingworth: British war correspondent dies aged 105|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-38573643|work=BBC News|date=10 January 2017}}</ref> While travelling from Poland to Germany, she spotted and reported German forces massed on the Polish border; ''The Daily Telegraph'' headline read: "1,000 tanks massed on Polish border "; three days later she was the first to report the [[Invasion of Poland|German invasion of Poland]].<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/10/business/media/clare-hollingworth-reporter-who-broke-news-of-world-war-ii-dies-at-105.html "Clare Hollingworth, Reporter Who Broke News of World War II, Dies at 105"], ''The New York Times'', 10 January 2017</ref>

During World War II, [[George Orwell]] worked as a journalist at ''[[The Observer]]'' for seven years, and its editor [[David Astor]] gave a copy of Orwell's essay "[[Politics and the English Language]]"—a critique of vague, slovenly language—to every new recruit.<ref name="Good journalism"/> In 2003, literary editor at the newspaper [[Robert McCrum]] wrote, "Even now, it is quoted in our style book".<ref name="Good journalism">{{cite news |title=George Orwell and the eternal truths of good journalism |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/nov/09/georgeorwell |access-date=19 July 2021 |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>

==== India ====
{{Main|History of Indian journalism}}
The first newspaper of India, ''[[Hicky's Bengal Gazette]]'', was published on 29 January 1780. This first effort at journalism enjoyed only a short stint yet it was a momentous development, as it gave birth to modern journalism in India. Following Hicky's efforts which had to be shut down just within two years of circulation, several English newspapers started publication in the aftermath. Most of them enjoyed a circulation figure of about 400 and were weeklies giving personal news items and classified advertisements about a variety of products. Later on, in the 1800s, English newspapers were started by Indian publishers with English-speaking Indians as the target audience. During that era vast differences in language was a major problem in facilitating smooth communication among the people of the country. This is because they hardly knew the languages prevalent in other parts of this vast land. However, English became a ''[[lingua franca]]'' across the country. Notable among this breed is the one named 'Bengal Gazette' started by Gangadhar Bhattacharyya in 1816.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

==== United States ====
{{Main|History of American journalism}}
The late 19th and early 20th century in the United States saw the advent of media empires controlled by the likes of [[William Randolph Hearst]] and [[Joseph Pulitzer]]. Realizing that they could expand their audience by abandoning politically polarized content, thus making more money off of [[Advertisement|advertising]], American newspapers began to abandon their partisan politics in favor of less political reporting starting around 1900.<ref>Richard Lee Kaplan, ''Politics and the American press: the rise of objectivity, 1865–1920'' (2002) p. 76</ref> Newspapers of this era embraced sensationalized reporting and larger headline typefaces and layouts, a style that would become dubbed "[[yellow journalism]]". Newspaper publishing became much more heavily professionalized in this era, and issues of writing quality and workroom discipline saw vast improvement.<ref>Frank Luther Mott, ''American Journalism: A History, 1690–1960'' (Macmillan, 3rd ed. 1962) pp. 603–05</ref> This era saw the establishment of [[freedom of the press]] as a legal norm, as President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] tried and failed to sue newspapers for reporting corruption in his handling of the purchase of the [[Panama Canal]].<ref>Mott, ''American Journalism'' (3rd ed, 1962) pp. 605–08.</ref> Still, critics note that although government's ability to suppress journalistic speech is heavily limited, the concentration of newspaper (and general media) ownership in the hands of a small number of private business owners leads to other biases in reporting and media self-censorship that benefits the interests of corporations and the government.<ref>[[Chris Hedges|Hedges, Chris]] (2009). ''[[Empire of Illusion]]: The End of Literacy and the Triumph of Spectacle.'' Nation Books. {{ISBN|1-56858-613-2}} p. 146.</ref><ref>[[Howard Zinn|Zinn, Howard]]. ''A People's History of the United States''. New York: [[HarperCollins|Harper Perennial Modern Classics]], 2005. p. 671 {{ISBN|0-06-083865-5}}</ref><ref>Scammell, Margaret; [[Holli Semetko|Semetko, Holli]] (11/22/2017). ''The Media, Journalism, and Democracy'' (1st ed.). London: Routiedge. p. 482. {{ISBN|978-1-351-74711-0}}.</ref>

===== African-American press =====
The rampant discrimination and segregation against African-Americans led to the founding their own daily and weekly newspapers, especially in large cities. While the first [[African Americans|Black]] newspapers in America were established in the early 19th century,<ref>Charles A. Simmons, ''The African American press: a history of news coverage during national crises, with special reference to four black newspapers, 1827–1965'' (McFarland, 2006)</ref> in the 20th century these newspapers truly flourished in major cities, with publishers playing a major role in politics and business affairs. Representative leaders included [[Robert Sengstacke Abbott]] (1870–1940), publisher of the [[Chicago Defender]]; [[John Mitchell Jr.]] (1863–1929), editor of the ''Richmond Planet'' and president of the National Afro-American Press Association; [[Anthony Overton]] (1865–1946), publisher of the [[Chicago Bee]], and [[Robert Lee Vann]] (1879–1940), the publisher and editor of the [[Pittsburgh Courier]].<ref>Patrick S. Washburn, ''The African American Newspaper: Voice of Freedom'' (2006).</ref>

===== College =====
Although it is not completely necessary to have attended college to be a journalist, over the past few years it has become more common to attend. With this becoming more popular, jobs are starting to require a degree to be hired. The first school of Journalism opened as part of the University of Missouri in 1908. In the [[History of journalism|History Of Journalism]] page, it goes into depth on how journalism has evolved into what it is today. As of right now, there are a couple different routes one can take if interested in journalism. If one wanting to expand their skills as a journalist, there are many college courses and workshops one can take. If going the full college route, the average time is takes to graduate with a journalism degree is four years.<ref>{{Cite web|date=September 28, 2017|first=Morgan |last=Rush |title=How Long Do You Go to School to Be a Journalist?|url=https://careertrend.com/how-long-do-you-go-to-school-to-be-a-journalist-12541473.html|access-date=2021-10-12|website=Career Trend|language=en}}</ref>

The top 5 ranked [[journalism schools]] in the US for the school year of 2022 are: 1. Washington and Lee University. 2. Northwestern University. 3. Georgetown University. 4. Columbia University in the City of New York. 5. University of Wisconsin - Madison.<ref>{{Cite web|title=2022 Best Journalism Schools|url=https://www.collegefactual.com/majors/communication-journalism-media/journalism/rankings/top-ranked/|access-date=2021-10-12|website=www.collegefactual.com|language=en}}</ref>

===== Writing for experts or for ordinary citizens<span class="anchor" id="Lippmann-Dewey"></span> =====
[[File:Walter Lippmann 1914.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Walter Lippmann]] in 1914]]

In the 1920s in the United States, as newspapers dropped their blatant partisanship in search of new subscribers, political analyst [[Walter Lippmann]] and philosopher [[John Dewey]] debated the role of journalism in a democracy.<ref>Noortje Marres, "The issues deserve more credit: Pragmatist contributions to the study of public involvement in the controversy." ''Social studies of science'' 37.5 (2007): 759–80.</ref> Their differing philosophies still characterize an ongoing debate about the role of journalism in society. Lippmann's views prevailed for decades, helping to bolster the Progressives' confidence in decision-making by experts, with the general public standing by. Lippmann argued that high-powered journalism was wasted on ordinary citizens, but was of genuine value to an elite class of administrators and experts.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Davis "Buzz" Merritt|author2=Maxwell E. McCombs|title=The Two W's of Journalism: The Why and What of Public Affairs Reporting|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0GRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|page=21|isbn=978-1-135-70471-1}}</ref> Dewey, on the other hand, believed not only that the public was capable of understanding the issues created or responded to by the elite, but also that it was in the public forum that decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface. The danger of demagoguery and false news did not trouble Dewey. His faith in popular democracy has been implemented in various degrees, and is now known as "[[community journalism]]".<ref>Carl Bybee, "Can democracy survive in the post-factual age?: A return to the Lippmann-Dewey debate about the politics of news." ''Journalism & Communication Monographs'' 1.1 (1999): 28–66.</ref> The 1920s debate has been endlessly repeated across the globe, as journalists wrestle with their roles.<ref>Alfred Hermida, et al. "The active recipient: Participatory journalism through the lens of the Dewey-Lippmann debate." ''International Symposium on Online Journalism'' 1#2 (2011).</ref>

'''Radio'''

[[Radio broadcasting]] increased in popularity starting in the 1920s, becoming widespread in the 1930s. While most radio programming was oriented toward music, sports, and entertainment, radio also broadcast speeches and occasional news programming. Radio reached the peak of its importance during [[World War II]], as radio and [[newsreel]]s were major sources of up-to-date information on the ongoing war. In the [[Soviet Union]], radio would be heavily utilized by the state to broadcast political speeches by leadership. These broadcasts would very rarely have any additional editorial content or analysis, setting them apart from modern news reporting.<ref>Stephen Lovell, "Broadcasting Bolshevik: The radio voice of Soviet culture, 1920s–1950s." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 48.1 (2013): 78–97.</ref> The radio would however soon be eclipsed by [[broadcast television]] starting in the 1950s.

=== Television ===
{{Main|News broadcasting}}
Starting in the 1940s, United States broadcast television channels would air 10-to-15-minute segments of news programming one or two times per evening. The era of live-TV news coverage would begin in the 1960s with the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]], broadcast and reported to live on a variety of nationally syndicated television channels. During the 60s and 70s, television channels would begin adding regular morning or midday news shows. Starting in 1980 with the establishment of [[CNN]], news channels began providing 24-hour news coverage, a format which persists through today.

=== Digital age ===
[[File:Msc 2008-Saturday, 09.00 - 11.00 Uhr-Moerk001 Sa.jpg|thumb|Journalists at a press conference]]
The role and status of journalism, as well as mass media, has undergone changes over the last two decades, together with the advancement of digital technology and publication of news on the Internet. This has created a shift in the consumption of print media channels, as people increasingly consume news through [[e-readers]], [[smartphones]], and other electronic devices. News organizations are challenged to fully monetize their digital wing, as well as improvise on the context in which they publish in print. Newspapers have seen print revenues sink at a faster pace than the rate of growth for digital revenues.<ref name=":2" />

Notably, in the American media landscape, [[newsroom]]s have reduced their staff and coverage as traditional media channels, such as television, grappling with declining audiences. For example, between 2007 and 2012, [[CNN]] edited its story packages into nearly half of their original time length.<ref name="State">"[http://stateofthemedia.org/2013/overview-5/ "The State of the News Media 2013: An Annual Report in American Journalism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826025836/http://stateofthemedia.org/2013/overview-5/ |date=26 August 2017 }}", the Pew Research Center's Project for Excellence in Journalism, 2 May 2012. Retrieved 23 May 2013.</ref> The compactness in coverage has been linked to broad audience attrition.<ref name="State" /> According to the Pew Research Center, the circulation for U.S. newspapers has fallen sharply in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/06/01/circulation-and-revenue-fall-for-newspaper-industry/|title=Despite subscription surges for largest U.S. newspapers, circulation and revenue fall for industry overall|date=1 June 2017|access-date=1 May 2018}}</ref> Digital-first, [[Non-profit journalism|non-profit newsrooms]] have grown in response to the need for high-quality information that the private sector has been struggling to provide.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bauder |first=David |date=2021-11-18 |title=Independent websites team up to boost rural journalism |url=https://apnews.com/article/business-arts-and-entertainment-media-journalism-media-industry-347379aeb64268cbf3e0b18e7721e87c |access-date=2023-07-25 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Seelye |first=Katharine Q. |date=2021-06-20 |title=When the Local Paper Shrank, These Journalists Started an Alternative |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/20/business/media/when-the-local-paper-shrank-these-journalists-started-an-alternative.html |access-date=2023-07-25 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

The digital era also introduced journalism whose development is done by ordinary citizens, with the rise of [[citizen journalism]] being possible through the Internet. Using video camera-equipped smartphones, active citizens are now enabled to record footage of news events and upload them onto channels like YouTube (which is often discovered and used by mainstream news media outlets). News from a variety of online sources, like [[blogs]] and other social media, results in a wider choice of official and unofficial sources, rather than only traditional media organizations.

[[File:Cosplayers at Comicdom 2012 in Athens, Greece grant interviews to the MTV television channel 21.JPG|thumb|Journalist interviewing a [[cosplay]]er]]

===Demographics in 2016===
A worldwide sample of 27,500 journalists in 67 countries in 2012–2016 produced the following profile:<ref>Thomas Hanitzsch, et al. eds. ''Worlds of Journalism: Journalistic Cultures around the Globe'' (2019) pp. 73–74. [https://www.amazon.com/Worlds-Journalism-Journalistic-Cultures-Institute/dp/0231186436/ see excerpt]</ref>

* 57 percent male;
* Mean age of 38
* Mean years of experience:13
* College degree: 56 percent; graduate degree: 29 percent
* 61 percent specialized in journalism/communications at college
* 62 percent identified as generalists and 23 percent as hard-news beat journalists
* 47 percent were members of a professional association
* 80 percent worked full-time
* 50 percent worked in print, 23 percent in television, 17 percent in radio, and 16 percent online.