Editing James M. Buchanan (section)

==Professional organizations==
===Thomas Jefferson Center for Studies in Political Economy===
In 1956 Buchanan and [[G. Warren Nutter]] approached the president of the University of Virginia to discuss the creation of a new school within the university, "The Jefferson Center for Studies in Political Economy and Social Philosophy".<ref name="Munger_20170629"/> Nutter, who studied under Friedman and Knight at the University of Chicago in the late 1940s, was working at that time under the sponsorship of the Brookings Institution's National Bureau of Economic Research (INBR) on his 1962 book ''The Growth of Industrial Production in the Soviet Union''.<ref name="Nutter_1969">{{cite book| publisher = World Publishing Company| last1 = Nutter| first1 = G. Warren| series = Principles of Freedom Committee| title = The strange world of Ivan Ivanov| location = New York| date = 1969 |oclc=589727286 |pages=144}}</ref> It was [[Thomas Jefferson]] who founded the University of Virginia in 1819 in [[Charlottesville, Virginia]] as a public research university. The next year the school was founded<ref name=" Thuresson">{{Cite web| publisher = George Mason University (GMU)| title = About the Center| work = The Center for Study of Public Choice| access-date = April 5, 2022| url = https://publicchoice.gmu.edu/about| archive-date = March 25, 2022| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220325084243/https://publicchoice.gmu.edu/about| url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="Tullock_2004">{{Cite book |last=Tullock |first=Gordon |editor-last=Rowley |editor-first=Charles K. |title=Virginia Political Economy |access-date=April 5, 2022 |publisher=[[Liberty Fund]] |url=https://www.libertyfund.org/books/virginia-political-economy/ |date=2004 |pages=450 |volume=1 |isbn=978-0-86597-520-0 |archive-date=January 31, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131001844/https://www.libertyfund.org/books/virginia-political-economy/ |url-status=live }}</ref> with the intention of preserving a "social order built on individual liberty, and . . . as an educational undertaking in which students will be encouraged to view the organizational problems of society as a fusion of technical and philosophical issues."<ref name="Munger_20170629"/><ref name="TJCenter_1959">{{citation |title=Working Papers for Internal Discussion Only—General Aims |date=1959  |location=Charlottesville, Virginia |series=Special Collections, University of Virginia Library}}</ref><ref name="Nutter_1969"/>

One of the center's early publications that reached a wider audience was a 1959 report Buchanan co-authored with Nutter, "The Economics of Universal Education".<ref name="Buchanan_Nutter_1959" group="Works">{{cite report |title=The Economics of Universal Education (unpublished monograph)|last1=Buchanan |first1=James M. |last2=Nutter |first2=G. Warren |date=1959 |work=Thomas Jefferson Center for Studies in Political Economy |series=Buchanan House Archives |location=[[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]]}}</ref><ref name="Hershman_20201109">{{Cite magazine| last1 = Hershman| first1 = James H. Jr.| title = James M. Buchanan, Segregation, and Virginia's Massive Resistance| magazine = Institute for New Economic Thinking| access-date = April 8, 2022| date = November 9, 2020| url = https://www.ineteconomics.org/perspectives/blog/james-m-buchanan-segregation-and-virginias-massive-resistance| archive-date = May 25, 2022| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220525093359/https://www.ineteconomics.org/perspectives/blog/james-m-buchanan-segregation-and-virginias-massive-resistance| url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="Levy_Peart_2020">{{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-1-108-42897-2| pages = 93–138| editor-last1=Levy |editor-first1 = David M. |editor-first2=Sandra J. |editor-last2=Peart| title = Towards an Economics of Natural Equals: A Documentary History of the Early Virginia School| chapter = 'The Economics of Universal Education' and After: From Friedman to Rawls| location = Cambridge| access-date = April 11, 2022 | date = 2020| doi = 10.1017/9781108571661.005| s2cid = 241726550| url = https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/towards-an-economics-of-natural-equals/economics-of-universal-education-and-after-from-friedman-to-rawls/7A57C4A4E3E5794A99472B6859742DEA}}</ref> In it they wrote that the, "case for universal education is self-evident: a democracy cannot function without an informed and educated citizenry. . . . If education is to be universal, compulsion must be exercised by government—that is, by the collective organ of society—since some parents might choose to keep their children out of school. For similar reasons, minimum standards of education must be determined by government. Otherwise, the requirement of education is empty and meaningless."<ref name="Buchanan_Nutter_1959" group="Works"/><ref name="Munger_20170629"/> Buchanan was not against "state participation in education" although he strongly opposed " state monopoly of education".<ref name="Munger_20170629"/>

Its publication provided the center and its authors, their first opportunity to be involved in a major public policy issue related to constitutional reform.<ref name="Hershman_20201109"/> A March 12, 1959 ''Charlottesville Daily Progress'' editorial called for reform of Virginia's constitution that would recognize "both the need for universal education and the right of the individual to freedom of choice in the education of his children." Georgetown University historian, James H. Hershman, said the wording seems to be from "The Economics of Universal Education".<ref name="Hershman_20201109"/> In a 2017 CATO Institute's Libertarianism.org podcast, Richard E. Wagner, who studied under Buchanan in the 1960s and maintained a 50-year friendship with him, said that Buchanan was an "egalitarian" and had no objection to the 1954 [[Brown v. Board of Education]] [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] decision that introduced desegregation in [[Public school (government funded)|public schools]].<ref name="FreeThoughts_20171005">{{Cite AV media | series = Free Thoughts | people = Trevor Burrus and Aaron Ross Powell (hosts), Richard E. Wagner (Department of Economics; George Mason University, Mercatus Center) | title = The Real James Buchanan | access-date = April 8, 2022 | date = October 5, 2017 | time =  | url = https://www.libertarianism.org/media/free-thoughts/real-james-buchanan | publisher = CATO institute Libertarianism.org | archive-date = May 22, 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220522051321/https://www.libertarianism.org/media/free-thoughts/real-james-buchanan | url-status = live }}</ref> Wagner said that while Buchanan opposed segregated schools at the time, he also believed in decentralization and parental and student choice within a liberal orientation of people being able to develop their talents and abilities. Hershman wrote the ''[[Encyclopedia Virginia]]'''s "Massive Resistance" article,<ref name="Massive_Resistance">{{Cite encyclopedia| title = Massive Resistance| encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Virginia| access-date = April 8, 2022| url = https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/massive-resistance/| archive-date = April 9, 2022| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220409013755/https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/massive-resistance/| url-status = live}}</ref>' and his 1978 PhD dissertation was on the [[massive resistance]] strategy{{emdash}}a Virginia state government strategy adopted in 1956 to block the desegregation of public schools led by [[Harry F. Byrd Sr.]], who coined the term.<ref name="Hershman_1978">{{Cite thesis | type=PhD | publisher = University of Virginia| last = Hershman| first = James Howard| title = A rumbling in the museum : the opponents of Virginia's massive resistance| access-date = April 8, 2022 | date = January 1, 1978 | url = https://libraetd.lib.virginia.edu/public_view/pz50gw173}}</ref> In a 2020 article, Hershman examined Buchanan's actions in the spring of 1959 within the context of the massive resistance policy.<ref name="Hershman_20201109"/> By the time Buchanan became involved, there was already a groundswell of protests against desegregation based on constitutional arguments, states' rights, and even some arguments from the Chicago school of economics. The Virginia school crisis offered Buchanan a "major opportunity" of promoting "libertarian economic and social ideas."<ref name="Hershman_20201109"/> The Buchanan and Nutter report proved most useful just before an April 16, 1959, public hearing on a proposed constitutional change. In order to counter the argument that a "private system was unfeasible and that any weakening of public education would damage the state's economy overall and discourage new industries from coming to Virginia", supporters asked Buchanan and Nutter to write a shorter summary of their February report. They published two articles on the report in the Richmond ''Times-Dispatch'' on April 12 and 13.<ref name="Hershman_20201109"/> While Buchanan's personal views on race were beside the point, according to Hershman, the "massive resistance private school initiative" had provided an "opportunity to "create a functioning alternative to the existing public system", to "promote his libertarian education doctrines, as an example to showcase those ideas". Hershman wrote that it did not seem to concern Buchanan that the libertarian doctrines would perpetuate segregation. Buchanan was on the wrong side of history. The school crisis brought in a power shift in the state of Virginia from a "rural, courthouse elite to that of an urban, business elite".<ref name="Hershman_20201109"/>

In later years, Buchanan no longer held the same ideas on school vouchers as those expressed in the 1959 report. He cautioned in a 1984 letter to the [[Institute for Economic Affairs]]' [[Arthur Seldon]] that a state-sponsored unregulated voucher system from tax revenues to avoid the "evils of state monopoly" of the education system, could have the unintended consequence of the "evils of race-class-cultural segregation."<ref name="Buchanan_1982" group="Works">{{citation |title=James Buchanan to Arthur Seldon |date=1984 |series=Archive: Vouchers . . . Correspondence Buchanan Box 162.2 |work=[[Institute for Economic Affairs]] via [[Hoover Institution]] |location= Stanford, California }}</ref><ref name="Munger_20170629"/> The voucher system could result in recreating the exclusive membership-only system for elites. While vouchers would ideally promote market competition while also providing benefits of "exposure to other races, classes and cultures", Buchanan warned that this may not happen in practice.<ref name="Buchanan_1982" group="Works"/><ref name="Munger_20170629"/>

==== Public Choice Society and ''Public Choice'' journal ====
With the publication of ''The Calculus of Consent'' in 1962 and [[Mancur Olson]]'s ''[[Logic of Collective Action]]'' in 1965,<ref name="Olsen_1965">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/logicofcollectiv00olso_0 |title=The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups |date=1965 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-53751-3 |location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref> there was growing interest in public choice theory. Tullock and Buchanan applied for and received a [[National Science Foundation]] grant to organize a preliminary research meeting in Charlottesville in 1963 with about twenty people from economics, philosophy, and political science including Olson, [[William H. Riker]], [[Vincent Ostrom]], [[Anthony Downs]], [[Duncan Black]], [[Roland McKean]], [[Jerome Rothenberg]], and [[John Rawls]] (author of the influential 1971 ''[[A Theory of Justice]]'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Will |first=Kymlicka |url=https://archive.org/details/contemporarypoli00kyml_0/page/11 |title=Contemporary political philosophy : an introduction |date=1990 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0198277248 |location=Oxford |oclc=21762535}}</ref> They created a Committee for the Study of Non-Market Decision Making, which later became the Public Choice Society. They wanted to focus on how choices and "decisions were made outside of a private market context".<ref name="minneapolisfed_1995" /> As a follow-up, they launched a journal with Tullock as editor called ''[[Papers on Non-Market Decision Making|Papers on Non-market Decision Making]]''. Tullock remained as editor until 1990. They had several follow-up meetings, including one in Chicago in 1967. Members were dissatisfied with the title and it was changed to ''Public Choice''.<ref name="minneapolisfed_1995" />

==== Virginia school of political economy ====
{{main|Virginia school of political economy}}
Buchanan remained at the University of Virginia until 1968. The work of Buchanan, Nutter, and other colleagues including Tullock, Stigler, [[Ronald Coase]], [[Alexandre Kafka]], and [[Leland B. Yeager]] later came to be seen as the start of the [[Virginia school of political economy]] as separate from the Chicago school of economics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Breit |first=William |date=October 1, 1987 |title=Creating the "Virginia School": Charlottesville as an Academic Environment in the 1960s |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/33fe704c4a8b36511d817b6b4a088cb5/ |journal=[[Economic Inquiry]] |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=645–657 |doi=10.1111/j.1465-7295.1987.tb00766.x |via=ProQuest |access-date=April 11, 2023 |archive-date=March 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328200433/https://www.proquest.com/openview/33fe704c4a8b36511d817b6b4a088cb5/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Buchanan stated that Mancur Olson came up with the term some time after the Center for Study of Public Choice was founded at Virginia Tech.<ref name="minneapolisfed_1995" /> In a 1997 interview with ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'', Coase discussed the atmosphere in the university's economics department in the 1960s, in which he and Buchanan, Tullock, and Nutter felt that their work was considered to be "disreputable" and they were considered to be "right-wing extremists." Coase stated that he believed there was general suspicion towards anyone who supported an unregulated free market at that time.<ref name="Hazlett_19970101">{{Cite news| last = Hazlett| first = Thomas W.| title = Looking for Results: An Interview with Ronald Coase| work = Reason| access-date = April 6, 2022| date = January 1, 1997| url = https://reason.com/1997/01/01/looking-for-results/| archive-date = October 3, 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201003055834/https://reason.com/1997/01/01/looking-for-results/| url-status = live}}</ref>

===Center for Study of Public Choice===
In 1969, Buchanan, Tullock, and Charles J. Goetz established the Center for Study of Public Choice at [[Virginia Tech|Virginia Polytechnic Institute]] (VPI) in [[Blacksburg, Virginia]] with Buchanan as its first director.

In 1983, Buchanan relocated the entire Center for Study of Public Choice unit, which included its seven faculty members to George Mason University (GMU) in [[Fairfax, Virginia]].<ref name="Mitchell1988" /> Buchanan complained to then-GMU economics department chair Karen Vaughn that VPI was losing its status as unique center for public choice.<ref name="Vaughn_20150601">{{Cite journal |last=Vaughn |first=Karen |date=June 1, 2015 |title=How James Buchanan came to George Mason University |journal=[[Journal of Private Enterprise]] |volume=30 |pages=103–109 |issn=0890-913X |number=2}}</ref> Buchanan was offered an annual salary of over $100,000 at George Mason,<ref name="SCPB_AR_1985" />{{rp|27}} At the time, George Mason was a relatively unknown state university, having just gained independent status from the University of Virginia in 1972.<ref name="Vaughn_20150601" /> Buchanan was drawn to GMU's leadership.<ref name="SCPB_AR_1985">{{cite report |title=Center for Study of Public Choice Annual Report (1985)|series=Annual report |number=T151381398 |pages=43}}</ref>{{rp|27}} Vaughn stated that she believed the addition of the Center contributed to GMU's rapid growth.<ref name="Vaughn_20150601" /> Over the next decades, GMU became the largest public university in Virginia.<ref name="Barakat_20180430">{{Cite news |last=Barakat |first=Matthew |date=April 30, 2018 |title=Documents show ties between university, conservative donors |work=AP NEWS |location=Fairfax, Virginia |url=https://apnews.com/article/0c87e4318bcc4eb9b8e69f9f54c7b889 |access-date=April 7, 2022 |archive-date=April 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407185323/https://apnews.com/article/0c87e4318bcc4eb9b8e69f9f54c7b889 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Economist [[James C. Miller III]], who served as chairman of the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) and as [[United States Office of Management and Budget|Budget Director]] for then-US president [[Ronald Reagan]] consulted with Buchanan, Tullock, and Tollison at the center.<ref name="Vaughn_20150601"/>{{rp|25}} From 1998 to 2002 the Center functioned as part of James M. Buchanan Center for Political Economy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 17, 2003 |title=About the James Buchanan Center |url=http://www.gmu.edu/jbc/about/about.html |access-date=March 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030217174830/http://www.gmu.edu/jbc/about/about.html |archive-date=February 17, 2003 }}</ref>

===Other activities and associations===
Buchanan was associated with the Indianapolis-headquartered [[Liberty Fund]], a [[Free market|free-market]] [[think tank]] which was founded in 1960 by [[Pierre F. Goodrich]]. Goodrich became a member of the Mont Pelerin Society in 1953 and had formed friendships with Hayek, Mises, Friedman and others. The Liberty Fund hosted conferences and symposiums on Buchanan's economic policy, liberalism and liberty.<ref name="Lee_2012" />{{rp|162}} The entire collection of his publications are hosted on the Online Library of Liberty (OLL) site. The Liberty Fund also published ''The Collected Works of James Buchanan''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Collected Works of James M. Buchanan in 20 vols. {{!}} Online Library of Liberty |url=https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/tollison-the-collected-works-of-james-m-buchanan-in-20-vols |access-date=March 28, 2023 |website=oll.libertyfund.org |language=en |archive-date=March 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328204408/https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/tollison-the-collected-works-of-james-m-buchanan-in-20-vols |url-status=live }}</ref>