Editing Islamophobia (section)

===Relation to racism===
{{See also|Cultural racism}}
{{Distinguish|Anti-Arab racism|Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment}}
Several scholars consider Islamophobia to be a form of [[racism]]. A 2007 article in ''Journal of Sociology'' defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism and a continuation of anti-[[Asian people|Asian]], [[Anti-Turkism|anti-Turkic]] and [[Anti-Arabism|anti-Arab]] racism.<ref>[http://www.tariqmodood.com/uploads/1/2/3/9/12392325/multicultural_state_we_are_in.pdf "The Multicultural State We're In: Muslims,'Multiculture' and the 'Civic Re‐balancing' of British Multiculturalism"], ''Political Studies'': 2009 Vol 57, 473–97</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.surrey.ac.uk/cronem/files/Tariq-Modood-article.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054654/https://www.surrey.ac.uk/cronem/files/Tariq-Modood-article.pdf |archive-date=2013-09-21 |title=Remaking multiculturalism after 7/7 |website=Centre for Research on the European Matrix |first=Tariq |last=Modood |date=29 September 2005 |quote=The most important such form of cultural racism today is anti-Muslim racism, sometimes called Islamophobia.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Islamophobia Industry: How the Right Manufactures Fear of Muslims|author=Nathan Lean|isbn=978-0745332543|year=2012|publisher=Pluto Press |quote=Biological racist discourses have now been replaced by what is called the 'new racism' or 'cultural racist' discourses}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Poynting | first1 = S. | last2 = Mason | first2 = V. | doi = 10.1177/1440783307073935 | title = The resistible rise of Islamophobia: Anti-Muslim racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001 | journal = Journal of Sociology | volume = 43 | pages = 61–86 | year = 2007 | issue = 1 | s2cid = 145065236 }}</ref> In their books, [[Deepa Kumar]] and Junaid Rana have argued that formation of Islamophobic discourses has paralleled the development of other forms of racial bigotry.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Review: beyond "post 9/11" (''Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire'' by Deepa Kumar; ''Terrifying Muslims: Race and Labor in the South Asian Diaspora'' by Junaid Rana)|author=Erik Love|journal=Contexts| volume=12|number=1|year=2013|pages=70–72|jstor=41960426|quote=Taking these two works together, Kumar and Rana put forth a strong argument that while Islam is certainly a religion, and not a race, and Muslims (like all religious communities) are a highly diverse group in terms of ethnicity, nationality, and even racial backgrounds, Islamophobia is in fact a form of racism. Both books effectively provide historical accounts showing the parallel development of Islamophobic discourses alongside other forms of racial bigotry and discrimination.}}</ref> Similarly, [[John Denham (politician)|John Denham]] has drawn parallels between modern Islamophobia and the [[antisemitism]] of the 1930s,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article6832035.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510093750/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article6832035.ece|archive-date=10 May 2011|title=Fascism fears: John Denham speaks out over clashes|date=12 September 2009|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> as have [[Maud Olofsson]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.svd.se/nyheter/inrikes/artikel_3674445.svd|title=Reinfeldt: Kärnan i partiets idé|author=Dan Nilsson|newspaper=Svenska Dagbladet|date=19 October 2009|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> and [[Jan Hjärpe]], among others.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nasarmeer.com/uploads/7/7/4/6/7746984/meer_and_noorani_-_the_sociological_review.pdf |title=A sociological comparison of anti-Semitism and anti-Muslim sentiment in Britain |first1=Nasar |last1=Meer |first2=Tehseen |last2=Noorani |journal=[[The Sociological Review]] |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=195–219 |date=May 2008 |quote=Across Europe activists and certain academics are struggling to get across an understanding in their governments and their countries at large that anti-Muslim racism/Islamophobia is now one of the most pernicious forms of contemporary racism and that steps should be taken to combat it.|doi=10.1111/j.1467-954X.2008.00784.x |s2cid=142754091 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia – new enemies, old patterns|first1=Sabine|last1=Schiffer|first2=Constantin|last2=Wagner|date=1 January 2011|journal=Race & Class|volume=52|issue=3|pages=77–84|via=SAGE Journals|doi=10.1177/0306396810389927|s2cid=146753309}}</ref>

Others have questioned the relationship between Islamophobia and racism. Jocelyne Cesari writes that "academics are still debating the legitimacy of the term and questioning how it differs from other terms such as racism, anti-Islamism, anti-Muslimness, and anti-Semitism."<ref>Jocelyne Cesari [http://www.euro-islam.info/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/securitization_and_religious_divides_in_europe.pdf "Muslims In Western Europe After 9/11: Why the term Islamophobia is more a predicament than an explanation"] Submission to the Changing Landscape of Citizenship and Security: 6th PCRD of European Commission. 1 June 2006: p. 6</ref><ref name=cesariA>{{cite book|title=Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century|editor=[[John L. Esposito]]|year=2011|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0199753642|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamop_xxx_2011_00_7922/page/21 21]|url=https://archive.org/details/islamop_xxx_2011_00_7922/page/21}}</ref> Erdenir finds that "there is no consensus on the scope and content of the term and its relationship with concepts such as racism ..."<ref name=Triandafyllidou>{{cite book|title=Muslims in 21st Century Europe: Structural and Cultural Perspectives|editor=Anna Triandafyllidou|year=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415497091|page=28}}</ref> and Shryock, reviewing the use of the term across national boundaries, comes to the same conclusion.<ref name=ShryockA>{{cite book|title=Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend|editor=Andrew Shryock|year=2010|pages=6–25|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0253221995}}</ref>

Some scholars view Islamophobia and racism as partially overlapping phenomena. Diane Frost defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim feeling and violence based on "race" or religion.<ref name=DianeFrost>{{Cite journal | last1 = Frost | first1 = D. | title = Islamophobia: Examining causal links between the media and "race hate" from "below" | doi = 10.1108/01443330810915251 | journal = International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy | volume = 28 | issue = 11/12 | pages = 564–78 | year = 2008 }}</ref> Islamophobia may also target people who have Muslim names, or have a look that is associated with Muslims.<ref name=levandehistoria>[http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/islamofobi.pdf Islamofobi – en studie av begreppet, ungdomars attityder och unga muslimers utsatthet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119025153/http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/islamofobi.pdf |date=19 January 2012}}, published by {{ill|Forum för levande historia|sv}}
<br />[http://hdl.handle.net/1885/45034 The rise of anti-Muslim racism in Australia: who benefits?]
<br />{{cite journal | last1 = Poynting | last2 = Mason | year = 2006 | title = Tolerance, Freedom, Justice and Peace?: Britain, Australia and Anti-Muslim Racism since 11 September 2001 | journal = Journal of Intercultural Studies | volume = 27 | issue = 4| pages = 365–91 | doi = 10.1080/07256860600934973 | hdl = 2292/23817 | s2cid = 145787451 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> According to [[Alan Johnson]], Islamophobia sometimes can be nothing more than xenophobia or racism "wrapped in religious terms".<ref name=Johnson20110306>{{Cite journal |title=The Idea of 'Islamophobia'|author=Alan Johnson|date=6 March 2011|journal=[[World Affairs]]}}</ref> Sociologists Yasmin Hussain and Paul Bagguley stated that racism and Islamophobia are "analytically distinct", but "empirically inter-related".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hussain|first1=Yasmin|last2=Bagguley|first2=Paul|name-list-style=amp|title=Securitized Citizens: Islamophobia, Racism and the 7/7 London Bombings|journal=The Sociological Review|date=November 2012|volume=60|issue=4|pages=715–734|doi=10.1111/j.1467-954X.2012.02130.x|s2cid=143355490|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/80516/2/securitsedcitizens4socrevrevfinal280512%5B1%5D.pdf}}</ref>

The [[European Commission against Racism and Intolerance]] (ECRI) defines Islamophobia as "the fear of or prejudiced viewpoint towards Islam, Muslims and matters pertaining to them", adding that whether "it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms, Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion".<ref name=levandedefinitioner>{{cite web|url=http://www.levandehistoria.se/fakta-fordjupning/islamofobi/definitioner-och-uttryck|title=Islamofobi – definitioner och uttryck|website=Forum för levande historia|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>