Editing Invasive species (section)

==Vectors==
Non-native species have many [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]]s, but most are associated with human activity. Natural [[Range (biology)|range]] extensions are common, but humans often carry specimens faster and over greater distances than natural forces.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cassey |first=P |year=2005 |title=Concerning Invasive Species: Reply to Brown and Sax|journal=[[Austral Ecology]] |volume=30|issue=4 |pages=475–480 |doi=10.1111/j.1442-9993.2005.01505.x|bibcode=2005AusEc..30..475C |hdl=10019.1/119884 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> An early human vector occurred when prehistoric humans introduced the Pacific rat (''Rattus exulans'') to Polynesia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Matisoo-Smith |first=E. |year=1998 |title=Patterns of prehistoric human mobility in Polynesia indicated by mtDNA from the Pacific rat|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=95 |pages=15145–15150 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.25.15145 |pmid=9844030 |issue=25 |pmc=24590 |bibcode=1998PNAS...9515145M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[File:EriocheirSinensis1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chinese mitten crab]] ]]

Vectors include plants or seeds imported for [[horticulture]]. The [[pet trade]] moves animals across borders, where they can escape and become invasive. Organisms stow away on transport vehicles. Incidental human assisted transfer is the main cause of introductions{{snd}}other than for [[polar regions of Earth|polar regions]].<ref name="Essl-et-al-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Essl |first1=Franz |last2=Lenzner |first2=Bernd |last3=Bacher |first3=Sven |last4=Bailey |first4=Sarah |last5=Capinha |first5=Cesar |last6=Daehler |first6=Curtis |last7=Dullinger |first7=Stefan |last8=Genovesi |first8=Piero |last9=Hui |first9=Cang |last10=Hulme |first10=Philip E. |last11=Jeschke |first11=Jonathan M. |last12=Katsanevakis |first12=Stelios |display-authors=6 |title=Drivers of future alien species impacts: An expert-based assessment |journal=Global Change Biology |date=September 2020 |volume=26 |issue=9 |pages=4880–4893 |doi=10.1111/gcb.15199 |pmid=32663906 |pmc=7496498 |bibcode=2020GCBio..26.4880E }}</ref> Diseases may be vectored by invasive insects: the [[Diaphorina citri|Asian citrus psyllid]] carries the bacterial disease [[Citrus greening disease|citrus greening]].<ref name=r2/> The arrival of invasive [[propagule]]s to a new site is a function of the site's invasibility.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Leung |first=B. |year=2007 |title=The risk of establishment of aquatic invasive species: joining invasibility and propagule pressure |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume=274 |pages=2733–2739|doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.0841 |pmid=17711834 |issue=1625 |pmc=2275890}}</ref>

Many invasive species, once they are dominant in the area, become essential to the ecosystem of that area, and their removal could be harmful.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zavaleta |first1=Erika S. |last2=Hobbs |first2=Richard J. |last3=Mooney |first3=Harold A. |title=Viewing invasive species removal in a whole-ecosystem context |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |date=August 2001 |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=454–459 |doi=10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02194-2 }}</ref> Economics plays a major role in exotic species introduction. High demand for the valuable [[Chinese mitten crab]] is one explanation for the possible intentional release of the species in foreign waters.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seinfeld |first=John H. |title=Marine Pollution and Climate Change |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |year=2016 |isbn=9781482299441 |editor-last=Arias |editor-first=Andres Hugo |editor-last2=Marcovecchio |editor-first2=Jorge Eduardo}}</ref>

=== Within the aquatic environment ===
Maritime trade has rapidly affected the way marine organisms are transported within the ocean; new means of species transport include hull fouling and ballast water transport. In fact, Molnar et al. 2008 documented the pathways of hundreds of marine invasive species and found that shipping was the dominant mechanism for the transfer of invasive species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Molnar |first1=Jennifer L. |last2=Gamboa |first2=Rebecca L. |last3=Revenga |first3=Carmen |last4=Spalding |first4=Mark D. |title=Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=November 2008 |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=485–492 |doi=10.1890/070064 |bibcode=2008FrEE....6..485M }}</ref> 

[[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 1010 Discharging ballast water.jpg |thumb |Cargo ship [[sailing ballast |de-ballasting]] ]]

Many marine organisms can attach themselves to vessel hulls. Such organisms are easily transported from one body of water to another, and are a significant risk factor for a biological invasion event.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Drake |first=John |date=2007 |title=Hull fouling is a risk factor for intercontinental species exchange in aquatic ecosystems |journal=[[Aquatic Invasions]] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=121–131 |doi=10.3391/ai.2007.2.2.7 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Controlling for vessel hull fouling is voluntary and there are no regulations currently in place to manage hull fouling. However, the governments of [[California]] and [[New Zealand]] have announced more stringent control for vessel hull fouling within their respective jurisdictions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gard.no/web/updates/content/24305557/biofouling-moves-up-the-regulatory-agenda. |title=Biofouling moves up the regulatory agenda – GARD |website=www.gard.no |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=January 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113231807/http://www.gard.no/web/updates/content/24305557/biofouling-moves-up-the-regulatory-agenda. |url-status=live}}</ref>

Another vector of non-native aquatic species is [[Ballast water discharge and the environment|ballast water]] taken up at sea and released in port by transoceanic vessels.<ref name=cargo>{{cite web |url=http://www.jsonline.com/news/wisconsin/98880204.html |last=Egan |first=Dan |work=[[Journal Sentinel]] |date=October 31, 2005 |title=Noxious cargo |access-date=April 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021122316/http://www.jsonline.com/news/wisconsin/98880204.html |archive-date=October 21, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1145/2623330.2623364 |chapter=Improving management of aquatic invasions by integrating shipping network, ecological, and environmental data |title=Proceedings of the 20th ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining |year=2014 |last1=Xu |first1=Jian |last2=Wickramarathne |first2=Thanuka L. |last3=Chawla |first3=Nitesh V. |last4=Grey |first4=Erin K. |last5=Steinhaeuser |first5=Karsten |last6=Keller |first6=Reuben P. |last7=Drake |first7=John M. |last8=Lodge |first8=David M. |pages=1699–1708 |isbn=978-1-4503-2956-9 |s2cid=2371978 }}</ref> Some 10,000 species are transported via ballast water each day.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Streftaris |first1=N |last2=Zenetos |first2=Argyro |last3=Papathanassiou |first3=Enangelos |date=2005 |title=Globalisation in marine ecosystems: The story of non-indigenous marine species across European seas |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253862066 |journal=[[Oceanography and Marine Biology]] |volume=43 |pages=419–453 |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=September 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920011308/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253862066 |url-status=live}}</ref> Many of these are harmful. For example, freshwater [[zebra mussel]]s from Eurasia most likely reached the [[Great Lakes]] via ballast water.{{r|pnwaquaticinv}} These outcompete native organisms for oxygen and food, and can be transported in the small puddle left in a supposedly empty ballast tank.<ref name=cargo/> Regulations attempt to mitigate such risks,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.glc.org/wp-content/uploads/GLC-BW-Reg-Summary-11.14.16.pdf |title=Status of Ballast Water Discharge Regulations in the Great Lakes Region |last=Great Lake Commission |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=February 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212212419/http://www.glc.org/wp-content/uploads/GLC-BW-Reg-Summary-11.14.16.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/5ps/NVIC/2018/NVIC-01_18.pdf |title=Ballast Water Management for Control of Non-Indigenous Species in Waters of the United States |last=USCG |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=May 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511133624/https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/5ps/NVIC/2018/NVIC-01_18.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> not always successfully.{{r |trainer2012}} 

[[Climate change]] is causing an increase in [[ocean temperature]]. This in turn will cause range shifts in organisms,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Occhipinti-Ambrogi |first=Anna |date=2007 |title=Global change and marine communities: Alien species and climate change |journal=[[Marine Pollution Bulletin]] |volume=55 |issue=7–9 |pages=342–352 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.11.014 |pmid=17239404 |bibcode=2007MarPB..55..342O }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rahel |first1=Frank J. |last2=Olden |first2=Julian D. |title=Assessing the Effects of Climate Change on Aquatic Invasive Species |journal=Conservation Biology |date=June 2008 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=521–533 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00950.x |pmid=18577081 |s2cid=313824 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008ConBi..22..521R }}</ref> which could harm the environment as new species interactions occur. For example, organisms in a ballast tank of a ship traveling from the temperate zone through tropical waters may experience temperature fluctuations as much as 20&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hua |first1=J. |last2=Hwang |first2=W.H. |date=2012 |title=Effects of voyage routing on the survival of microbes in ballast water |journal=[[Ocean Engineering]] |volume=42 |pages=165–175 |doi=10.1016/j.oceaneng.2012.01.013|bibcode=2012OcEng..42..165H }}</ref> Heat challenges during transport may enhance the stress tolerance of species in their non-native range, by selecting for genotypes that will survive a second applied heat stress, such as increased ocean temperature in the founder population.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lenz |first1=Mark |last2=Ahmed |first2=Yasser |last3=Canning-Clode |first3=João |last4=Díaz |first4=Eliecer |last5=Eichhorn |first5=Sandra |last6=Fabritzek |first6=Armin G. |last7=da Gama |first7=Bernardo A. P. |last8=Garcia |first8=Marie |last9=von Juterzenka |first9=Karen |s2cid=53082967 |date=May 24, 2018 |title=Heat challenges can enhance population tolerance to thermal stress in mussels: a potential mechanism by which ship transport can increase species invasiveness |journal=[[Biological Invasions]] |volume=20 |issue=11 |pages=3107–3122 |doi=10.1007/s10530-018-1762-8|bibcode=2018BiInv..20.3107L }}</ref>

=== Effects of wildfire and firefighting ===
Invasive species often exploit disturbances to an ecosystem ([[wildfire]]s, [[road]]s, [[foot trail]]s) to colonize an area. Large wildfires can [[Sterilization (microbiology)|sterilize]] soils, while adding [[nutrient]]s.<ref name="Davis 2000 528–534"/> 
Invasive plants that can regenerate from their roots then have an advantage over natives that rely on seeds for propagation.<ref name="Brooks 2004 677–688"/>