Editing Indian religions (section)

==== Indus Valley civilisation ====
{{Further|Prehistoric religion}}

The religion and belief system of the Indus Valley people has received considerable attention, especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of Indian religions that later developed in the area. However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the [[Indus script]] remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partly speculative and largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective.{{Sfn|Wright|2009|pp=281–282}} An early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harrapan sites{{sfn|Ratnagar|2004}} was that of [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]], who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or veneration of animals and plants; symbolic representation of the phallus ([[linga]]) and vulva ([[yoni]]); and, use of baths and water in religious practice. Marshall's interpretations have been much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades.{{sfn|Marshall|1931|pp=48–78}}{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=141–156}}

[[File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|thumb|upright|The ''Pashupati seal'', showing a seated and possibly [[ithyphallic]] figure, surrounded by animals.]]

One Indus valley seal shows a seated figure with a horned headdress, surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god [[Shiva]] (or [[Rudra]]), who is associated with asceticism, [[yoga]], and linga; regarded as a lord of animals; and often depicted as having three eyes. The seal has hence come to be known as the [[Pashupati Seal]], after ''[[Pashupati]]'' (lord of all animals), an epithet of Shiva.{{sfn|Marshall|1931|pp=48–78}}{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=141–144}} While Marshall's work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections. [[Doris Srinivasan]] has argued that the figure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, and that in [[Vedic literature]] Rudra was not a protector of wild animals.{{sfn|Srinivasan|1975}}{{sfn|Srinivasan|1997|pp=180–181}} Herbert Sullivan and [[Alf Hiltebeitel]] also rejected Marshall's conclusions, with the former claiming that the figure was female, while the latter associated the figure with ''Mahisha'', the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with [[vahana]]s (vehicles) of deities for the four cardinal directions.{{sfn|Sullivan|1964}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=399–432}} Writing in 2002, [[Gregory L. Possehl]] concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too far.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=141–144}} Despite the criticisms of Marshall's association of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, it has been interpreted as the [[Tirthankara]] [[Rishabha]] by Jains and Vilas Sangave<ref>{{cite book|author= Vilas Sangave|year=2001 |title=Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture|publisher=Popular Prakashan|place=Mumbai|isbn=978-81-7154-839-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2FGSGmP4jNcC}}</ref> or an early [[Buddha]] by Buddhists.{{sfn|Ratnagar|2004}} Historians like [[Heinrich Zimmer]], [[Thomas McEvilley]] are of the opinion that there exists some link between first [[Jain]] Tirthankara Rishabha and Indus Valley civilisation.{{sfn|Zimmer|1969|pp=60, 208–209}}<ref>[[Thomas McEvilley]] (2002) ''The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies''. Allworth Communications, Inc. 816 pages; {{ISBN|1-58115-203-5}}</ref>

Marshall hypothesized the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several female figurines, and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect of [[History of Shaktism|Shaktism]]. However the function of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains unclear, and Possehl does not regard the evidence for Marshall's hypothesis to be "terribly robust".{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=141–145}} Some of the [[baetyl]]s interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phallic representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead, while the ring stones that were thought to symbolise ''yoni'' were determined to be architectural features used to stand pillars, although the possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be eliminated.{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|pp=286–287}}

Many Indus Valley seals show animals, with some depicting them being carried in processions, while others show [[Chimera (mythology)|chimeric creations]].<ref name=":100">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |pages=18–19 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> One seal from Mohen-jodaro shows a half-human, half-buffalo monster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to the [[Sumerian myth]] of such a monster created by goddess [[Aruru (goddess)|Aruru]] to fight [[Gilgamesh]].{{sfn|Marshall|1931|p=67}} Some seals show a man wearing a hat with two horns and a plant sitting on a throne with animals surrounding him.<ref name=":1002">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=18 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> Some scholars theorize that this was a predecessor to Shiva wearing a hat worn by some Sumerian divine beings and kings.<ref name=":1002" />

In contrast to contemporary [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] and [[Ancient Near East|Mesopotamian]] civilisations, the Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering knowledge.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|p=18}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=85}} This may suggest that religious ceremonies, if any, may have been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, or the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purpose, but at present only the [[Great Bath]] at Mohenjo-daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=141–145}}{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|pp=275–277, 292}} The funerary practices of the Harappan civilisation is marked by its diversity with evidence of supine burial; fractional burial in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment; and even cremation.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=152, 157–176}}{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|pp=293–299}}