Editing Iceland (section)

====The Middle Ages====
{{see also|Age of the Sturlungs}}
The [[Icelandic Commonwealth]], established in the 10th century, faced internal strife during the [[Age of the Sturlungs]] (c. 1220–1264). This period was marked by violent conflicts among chieftains, notably the Sturlung family, leading to the weakening of the Commonwealth's political structure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dannyreviews.com/h/Iceland.html |title=The History of Iceland (Gunnar Karlsson)&nbsp;– book review |publisher=Dannyreviews.com |access-date=10 February 2010 |archive-date=28 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728002528/http://dannyreviews.com/h/Iceland.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The culmination of these struggles resulted in the signing of the Old Covenant ([[Old Covenant (Iceland)|Gamli sáttmáli]]) in 1262–1264, bringing [[History of Iceland|Iceland under Norwegian rule]].<ref>Coroban, Costel (2018). ''Ideology and Power in Norway and Iceland, 1150-1250''. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 2. {{ISBN|9781527506268}}</ref>

Environmental challenges further impacted [[History of Iceland|medieval Icelandic society]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Medievalists.net |date=2019-02-06 |title=What was farming like in medieval Iceland? |url=https://www.medievalists.net/2019/02/farming-medieval-iceland/ |access-date=2025-04-10 |website=Medievalists.net |language=en-US}}</ref> Upon settlement, approximately 25-40% of Iceland was forested. However, extensive deforestation occurred as forests were cleared for timber, firewood, and to create grazing land for livestock. This led to significant soil erosion and a decline in arable land, exacerbating the difficulties of sustaining agriculture in Iceland's harsh climate.<ref>{{Cite web |last=developer |first=M. Özgür NevresI am a software |last2=University |first2=a science enthusiast I. was graduated from the Istanbul Technical |last3=past |first3=Computer Engineering In the |last4=Earth |first4=I. worked at the Istanbul Technical University Science Center as a science instructor I. write about the planet |last5=Website |first5=Science on This |last6=cats |first6=ourplnt com I. am also an animal lover! I. take care of stray |last7=Patreon |first7=dogs This website's all income goes directly to our furry friends Please consider supporting me on |last8=animals! |first8=so I. can help more |date=2018-04-03 |title=Iceland is growing new forests for the first time in 1,000 years - Our Planet |url=https://ourplnt.com/iceland-forests-1000-years/ |access-date=2025-04-10 |website=ourplnt.com |language=en-us}}</ref>

Agriculture during this period was predominantly pastoral, focusing on livestock such as sheep, cattle, and horses. While early settlers cultivated barley, the cooling climate from the 12th century onwards made grain cultivation increasingly difficult. The [[Little Ice Age]], beginning around 1300, brought colder and more unpredictable weather, further shortening growing seasons and making farming more challenging.<ref>Miller, Gifford H.; Geirsdóttir, Áslaug; Zhong, Yafang; Larsen, Darren J.; [[Bette Otto-Bliesner|Otto-Bliesner, Bette L.]]; [[Marika Holland|Holland, Marika M.]]; Bailey, David A.; Refsnider, Kurt A.; Lehman, Scott J.; Southon, John R.; Anderson, Chance; Björnsson, Helgi; Thordarson, Thorvaldur (30 January 2012). "Abrupt onset of the Little Ice Age triggered by volcanism and sustained by sea-ice/ocean feedbacks". ''[[Geophysical Research Letters]]''. '''39''' (2): n/a. [[Bibcode (identifier)|Bibcode]]:2012GeoRL..39.2708M. [[CiteSeerX (identifier)|CiteSeerX]] 10.1.1.639.9076. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:10.1029/2011GL050168. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] 15313398</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-06-13 |title=Farmsteads and Agriculture |url=https://fjorntheskald.com/2018/06/13/farmsteads-and-agriculture/ |access-date=2025-04-10 |website=Fjorn the Skald |language=en}}</ref>

The Black Death reached Iceland in 1402–1404 and again in 1494–1495, with devastating effects.<ref>Pulsiano, Phillip and Wolf, Kirsten (1993) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=d-XiZO8V4qUC&pg=PA312 Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610032723/https://books.google.com/books?id=d-XiZO8V4qUC&pg=PA312#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=10 June 2024 }}''. [[Taylor & Francis]]. p. 312. {{ISBN|0-8240-4787-7}}</ref> he first outbreak is estimated to have killed 50-60% of the population, while the second resulted in a 30-50% mortality rate. These pandemics significantly reduced the population, leading to social and economic disruptions.<ref>{{cite news |last=Maddicott |first=J.R. |title=6th–10th century AD |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2279/is_n156/ai_20059971/pg_14 |publisher=Findarticles.com |date=2 June 2009 |page=14 |access-date=10 February 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091001083931/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2279/is_n156/ai_20059971/pg_14 |archive-date=1 October 2009}}</ref>