Editing History of Jordan (section)

==Classical period==
[[Alexander the Great]]'s [[Wars of Alexander the Great|conquest]] of the Persian Empire in 332 BC introduced [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] culture to the Middle East.{{sfn|Salibi|1998|p=10}} Little is known about Greek/Macedonian control over the Levantine coast (southern Syria, Lebanon, Palestine) and Transjordan until 301 BCE, when the Ptolemies took control over this area.<ref name= JFS>{{cite book |last= Salles |first= Jean-François |chapter= The Hellenistic Age – (323 - 30 BC) |editor= Myriam Ababsa |title= Atlas of Jordan |year= 2013 |publisher= Presses de l’Ifpo ([[Institut français du Proche-Orient |French Institute of the Near East Press]]) |pages= 134-141 |via= openedition.org |doi= 10.4000/books.ifpo.4894 |chapter-url= https://books.openedition.org/ifpo/4894?lang=en |access-date= 11 May 2025}}</ref> After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the [[Partition of Babylon|empire split]] among his generals, and in the end much of Transjordan was disputed between the [[Ptolemaic kingdom|Ptolemies]] based in Egypt and the [[Seleucids]] based in Syria.{{sfn|Salibi|1998|p=10}} By the late Hellenistic period, the area{{which |Limited URL access as of now, cannot check. Google Books has 1st edition, page No. doesn't correspond. Book deals with Herod; prob. about Herodian realm + Nabataea, but not sure until checked. |date= May 2025}} had a mixed population of [[Jews]], [[Greeks]], [[Nabataeans]], other [[Arabs]], and descendants of Ammonites.<ref name= Routledge>{{Cite book |last= Richardson |first= Peter |last2= Fisher |first2= Amy Marie |title= Herod: King of the Jews and Friend of the Romans |year= 2017 |publisher= Routledge |location= London |page= 231 |isbn=978-1-315-16335-2 |edition=2 |doi= 10.4324/9781315163352 |access-date= 2021-12-12 |url-access= limited |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315163352/herod-peter-richardson-amy-marie-fisher |archive-date= 2021-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212071141/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315163352/herod-peter-richardson-amy-marie-fisher |url-status= live}}</ref> One of the best surviving structures from that period is [[Qasr al-Abd]], a Hellenistic palace built by the Jewish [[Tobiads|Tobiad]] family, close to the village of [[Iraq al-Amir]].<ref name="Routledge"/>[[File:Petra Jordan BW 21.JPG|thumb|right|210px|[[Petra]], the capital of the [[Nabatean kingdom]], is where the Nabatean alphabet was developed, from which the current [[Arabic alphabet]] further evolved.{{citation needed|date=December 2019}}]]The Nabataeans, nomadic Arabs based south of Edom, managed to establish an independent kingdom in the southern parts of Jordan in 169 BC by exploiting the struggle between the two Greek powers.{{sfn|Salibi|1998|p=10}} The Jewish [[Hasmonean Dynasty|Hasmonean Kingdom]] also took advantage of the growing geopolitical vacuum, seizing the area east of the Jordan River valley.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schäfer|first=Peter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdKCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74|title=The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World: The Jews of Palestine from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest|date=2003-09-02|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-40317-2|pages=69, 74|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71326385|title=Encyclopaedic dictionary of the Bible : comprising its antiquities, biography, geography, and natural history|date=2004|publisher=Logos Press|others=William Smith, J. M. Fuller|isbn=81-7268-090-2|location=New Delhi|pages=287|oclc=71326385}}</ref> The [[Nabataean Kingdom]] gradually expanded to control much of the trade routes of the region, and it stretched south along the [[Red Sea]] coast into the [[Hejaz]] desert, up to as far north as [[Damascus]], which it controlled for a short period (85–71) BC.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=51}} The Nabataeans massed a fortune from their control of the trade routes, often drawing the envy of their neighbours.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=30}} They also had monopolistic control over the Dead Sea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hammond |first=Philip C. |date=1959 |title=The Nabataean Bitumen Industry at the Dead Sea |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3209307 |journal=The Biblical Archaeologist |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=40–48 |doi=10.2307/3209307 |jstor=3209307 |s2cid=133997328}}</ref> [[Petra]], Nabataea's barren capital, flourished in the 1st century AD, driven by its extensive water irrigation systems and agriculture.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=70}} The Nabataeans were also talented [[Stone carving|stone carvers]], building their most elaborate structure, [[Al-Khazneh]], in the first century AD.<ref name="petra2">{{cite web|date=2 January 2016|title=Petra Lost and Found|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2016/01-02/petra/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408210210/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2016/01-02/petra/|archive-date=8 April 2018|access-date=8 April 2018|work=National Geographic}}</ref> It is believed to be the [[mausoleum]] of the Arab Nabataean King [[Aretas IV Philopatris|Aretas IV]].<ref name="petra2" />

Roman legions under [[Pompey]] conquered much of the [[Levant]] in 63 BC, inaugurating a period of Roman rule that lasted four centuries.{{dubious |I can't access p. 573. The Romans, including in their Christian guise, which we only now call Byzantines, stayed in control until the 630s, so 7 centuries, not 4. For excluding the Byzantine period a clarification is needed. |date= December 2024}}<ref name= roman2>{{Cite book|last1=Parker|first1=Samuel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PVZfx3Y6o5IC&pg=PA573|title=The Roman Frontier in Central Jordan: Final Report on the Limes Arabicus Project|last2=Betlyon|first2=John|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|year=2006|isbn=9780884022985|page=573|access-date=3 July 2018|archive-date=10 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410044112/https://books.google.com/books?id=PVZfx3Y6o5IC&pg=PA573|url-status=live}}</ref> The eastern side of the Jordan River valley, known then as [[Perea]], was part of the [[Herodian Kingdom of Judea]], a [[vassal state]] of the Roman Empire.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Herod: King of the Jews and Friend of the Romans|url=https://www.routledge.com/Herod-King-of-the-Jews-and-Friend-of-the-Romans/Richardson-Fisher/p/book/9780367594626|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-12|website=Routledge & CRC Press|pages=23, 231|language=en|archive-date=2021-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212091645/https://www.routledge.com/Herod-King-of-the-Jews-and-Friend-of-the-Romans/Richardson-Fisher/p/book/9780367594626}}</ref> By this time, the kingdoms of Ammon, Edom and Moab lost their distinct identities, and were assimilated into the Roman culture.<ref name="AEM" /> Some Edomites survived longer - driven by the Nabataeans due to sedition, they had migrated to southern [[Judea]], which became known as [[Idumaea]]; They were later converted to [[Judaism]] by the [[Hasmoneans]]. However, it is likely that Edomite migration to southern Judea has an older history, dating back to [[Nebuchadnezzar II]]'s reign.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Levin |first=Yigal |date=2020-09-24 |title=The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism |journal=Religions |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=487 |doi=10.3390/rel11100487 |issn=2077-1444 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The area also became the setting for some important events in [[Christianity]], including the [[Baptism of Jesus]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bible Gateway passage: John 1:28 - New Revised Standard Version|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%201%3A28&version=NRSV|access-date=2021-12-12|website=Bible Gateway|language=en|archive-date=2021-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212091639/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%201:28&version=NRSV|url-status=live}}</ref> In 106 AD, Emperor [[Trajan]] annexed the Nabataean Kingdom unopposed, and rebuilt the [[King's Highway (ancient)|King's Highway]] which became known as the [[Via Traiana Nova]] road.<ref name="roman2" /> The Romans gave the Greek cities of Transjordan–[[Philadelphia (Amman)|Philadelphia]] (Amman), [[Jerash|Gerasa]] (Jerash), [[Umm Qays|Gedara]] (Umm Quays), [[Pella, Jordan|Pella]] (Tabaqat Fahl) and [[Irbid|Arbila]] (Irbid)–and other Hellenistic cities in Palestine and southern Syria, a level of autonomy by forming the ''[[Decapolis]]'', a ten-city league.<ref name="atlas152">{{cite book|last=al-Nahar|first=Maysoun|title=Atlas of Jordan|date=11 June 2014|publisher=Presses de l'Ifpo|isbn=9782351594384|editor-last=Ababsa|editor-first=Myriam|series=Contemporain publications|pages=155–161|chapter=Roman Arabia|access-date=2 July 2018|chapter-url=https://books.openedition.org/ifpo/4903|archive-date=4 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704034841/https://books.openedition.org/ifpo/4903|url-status=live}}</ref> Jerash is one of the best preserved Roman cities in the East; it was even visited by Emperor [[Hadrian]] during his journey to [[Syria Palaestina]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gates|first1=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=--x-3W2R_QwC&pg=PA393|title=Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome|date=15 April 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134676620|pages=392–393|access-date=9 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128062152/https://books.google.com/books?id=--x-3W2R_QwC&pg=PA393|archive-date=28 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 324 AD, the [[Roman Empire]] split, and the Eastern Roman Empire–later known as the [[Byzantine Empire]]–continued to control or influence the region until 636 AD.<ref name="byzantine2">{{cite book|last1=Lemoine|first1=Florence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vSwi2TYabS4C&pg=PA43|title=Government Leaders, Military Rulers, and Political Activists|last2=Strickland|first2=John|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2001|isbn=9781573561532|page=43|access-date=4 July 2018|archive-date=10 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410044112/https://books.google.com/books?id=vSwi2TYabS4C&pg=PA43|url-status=live}}</ref> Christianity had become legal within the empire in 313 AD after Emperor [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]] converted to Christianity.<ref name="byzantine2" /> The [[Edict of Thessalonica|Edict of Thessalonka]] made Christianity the official state religion in 380 AD. Transjordan prospered during the Byzantine era, and Christian churches were built everywhere.{{sfn|Salibi|1998|p=14}} The [[Aqaba Church]] in [[Aqaba|Ayla]] was built during this era, it is considered to be the [[List of oldest church buildings|world's first purpose built Christian church]].<ref>{{cite web|title=First purpose-built church|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-purpose-built-church|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617193456/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-purpose-built-church|archive-date=17 June 2018|access-date=4 July 2018|work=Guinness World Records}}</ref> [[Umm ar-Rasas]] in southern Amman contains at least 16 Byzantine churches.<ref>{{cite web|date=1 January 2004|title=Um er-Rasas (Kastrom Mefa'a)|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1093|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704001404/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1093|archive-date=4 July 2018|access-date=4 July 2018|publisher=UNESCO}}</ref> Meanwhile, Petra's importance declined as sea trade routes emerged, and after a [[Galilee earthquake of 363|363 earthquake]] destroyed many structures, it declined further, eventually being abandoned.<ref name="petra2" /> The [[Sassanian Empire]] in the east became the Byzantines' rivals, and [[Byzantine–Sasanian wars|frequent confrontations]] sometimes led to the Sassanids controlling some parts of the region, including Transjordan.<ref>{{cite book|last=Avni|first=Gideon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2aTFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA302|title=The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach|date=30 January 2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780191507342|location=Oxford|page=302|access-date=4 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018100348/https://books.google.com/books?id=2aTFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA302|archive-date=18 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

<gallery widths="160" heights="160">
File:Iraq al-Amir.jpg|[[Qasr al-Abd]], an [[Hellenistic period]] palace in [[Iraq al-Amir]], built by the Jewish [[Tobiads|Tobiad]] family (c. 200 BCE)<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Richardson|first1=Peter|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781351670920|title=Herod: King of the Jews and Friend of the Romans|last2=Fisher|first2=Amy Marie|date=2017-08-22|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-16335-2|edition=2|location=Second edition. {{!}} Abingdon, Oxon, New York, NY: Routledge, [2017] {{!}} Series: Routledge ancient biographies {{!}} Originally published: Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1996.|pages=231|language=en|doi=10.4324/9781315163352}}</ref>
File:Nabatean Kingdom map.jpg|[[Nabataean Kingdom]] at its greatest height (85 BCE)
File:First century Iudaea province.gif|[[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]] and Transjordan during the [[Roman Empire|Roman period]] (c. 1st century CE)
File:Machaerus3229.JPG|[[Machaerus]], a [[Hasmonean dynasty|Hasmonean]] fortress (c. 90 BCE). According to the New Testament, it was the site of the [[beheading of John the Baptist]]. It was later destroyed by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] following the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] in 72 CE.
File:Jerash 01 (cropped).jpg|The Oval Forum of [[Jerash]] (c. 1st century AD), then member of the ten-city Roman league, the ''[[Decapolis]]''. Seven out of the ten Decapolis cities are present in modern-day Jordan.
File:Amman BW 2.JPG|Ruins of the [[Amman Citadel#Great Temple ("Temple of Hercules")| Great Temple]], inaccurately known as the Temple of Hercules, in [[Amman]], built by the Roman governor [[Publius Julius Geminius Marcianus]] in c. 162-166 CE.
</gallery>