Editing History of Ivory Coast (section)

== French colonial era ==
[[File:Almamy Samory Touré.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Samori Touré]]]]
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Colony of Ivory Coast
| common_name            = French Ivory Coast
| native_name            = Colonie de Côte d'Ivoire
| image_flag             = Flag of France.svg
| image_coat             = 
| symbol_type            = 
| image_map              = Côte d'Ivoire (orthographic projection).svg
| capital                = [[Grand-Bassam]] (1893–1896); [[Bingerville]] (1896–1934); [[Abidjan]] (1934–1960)
| national_motto         = 
| national_anthem        = 
| government_type        = [[French Colonial Empire|French colony]]
| leader1                = [[Sadi Carnot (statesman)|Sadi Carnot]]
| year_leader1           = 1893–1894
| leader2                = [[Charles de Gaulle]]
| year_leader2           = 1959–1960
| title_leader           = [[President of France]]
| title_representative   = [[List of colonial governors of Ivory Coast|Colonial governor]]
| year_representative1   = 1893–1895
| representative1        = [[Louis-Gustave Binger]] (first)
| year_representative2   = 1960
| representative2        = [[Yves Guéna]] (last)
| year_representative3   = 
| representative3        = 
| year_representative4   = 
| representative4        = 
| event_start            = Côte d'Ivoire officially becomes a French colony
| date_start             = 10 March
| year_start             = 1893
| event_end              = Independence from France
| date_end               = 7 August
| era                    = [[New Imperialism]], [[First World War]], [[Interwar period]], [[Second World War]], [[Decolonisation of Africa]], [[Cold War]]
| year_end               = 1960
| p1                     = Protectorate of Côte d'Ivoire
| flag_p1                = Flag of France.svg
| s1                     = History of Ivory Coast (1960–1999){{!}}First Republic of Ivory Coast
| flag_s1                = Flag of Côte d'Ivoire.svg
| year_exile_start       = <!-- Year of start of exile (if dealing with exiled government: status="Exile") -->
| year_exile_end         = <!-- Year of end of exile (leave blank if still in exile) -->
| event1                 = <!-- Optional: other events between "start" and "end" -->
| date_event1            = 
| event2                 = Accession to [[French West Africa]]
| date_event2            = 1904
| event3                 = Ivory Coast becomes an autonomous republic within the [[French Community]]
| date_event3            = December 1958
| event4                 = 
| date_event4            = 
| event5                 = 
| date_event5            = 
| legislature            = 
| currency               = [[French West African franc]] (1903–1945); [[West African CFA franc]] (1945–1960)
| currency_code          = XOF
| area_km2               = 
| area_rank              = 
| area_sq_mi             = 
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| HDI                    = 
| HDI_year               = 
}}
Côte d'Ivoire officially became a [[French colony]] on 10 March 1893.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=What Changed the Ivory Coast from an Example of Economic Development Into a Bloodbath |url=https://docslib.org/what-changed-the-ivory-coast-from-an-example-of-economic-development-into-a-bloodbath |access-date=3 April 2022 |website=Docslib |language=en}}</ref> Louis Gustave Binger who had explored the Gold Coast frontier, was named the first governor.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> He negotiated boundary treaties with [[Liberia]] and Britain (for the Gold Coast).<ref name=":10" /> Throughout the early years of French rule, French military contingents went inland to establish new posts.<ref name=":6" /> The French settlements encountered resistance from locals, even in areas with treaties of protection.<ref name=":6" /> [[Samori Touré]] offered the greatest resistance; he had established the [[Wassoulou Empire]] over large parts of present-day [[Guinea]], Mali, Burkina Faso, and Ivory Coast starting in 1878.<ref name=":6" /> Tourés large, well-equipped army could manufacture and repair its own [[firearm]]s, attracting strong support throughout the region.<ref name=":6" /> Binger responded to Touré's expansion of regional control with military pressure, resulting in fierce resistance.<ref name=":6" /> The French campaigns against the [[Wassoulou Empire|Wassoulou]] intensified in the mid-1890s until they captured Touré in 1898.<ref name=":6" />

In 1900, France imposed a [[tax per head|head tax]] for a [[public works]] program in the colony, provoking several revolts.<ref name=":7">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cote d'Ivoire: a country study |publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, D.C. |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/90005878/ |date=1988 |editor-last=Handloff |editor-first=Robert Earl |page=11 |pages= |isbn= |oclc=44238009 |postscript=. {{PD-notice}}}}.</ref> The public works programs and the related exploitation of natural resources required a huge workforce.<ref name=":8">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cote d'Ivoire: a country study |publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, D.C. |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/90005878/ |date=1988 |editor-last=Handloff |editor-first=Robert Earl |page=14 |pages= |isbn= |oclc=44238009 |postscript=. {{PD-notice}}}}.</ref> The French imposed a system of [[forced labor]], requiring each adult male Ivorian to work ten days each year without compensation as an obligation to the state.<ref name=":8" /> This system was subject to extreme misuse and was the most hated aspect of French colonial rule by the Africans.<ref name=":8" /> Because the population of Ivory Coast was insufficient to meet the labor demands of French-held plantations and forests, the greatest users of labor in French West Africa, the French recruited large numbers of workers from [[Republic of Upper Volta|Upper Volta]] to Ivory Coast.<ref name=":8" /> The forced labor was not only disadvantageous to the men forced to work but also to the Ivorian farmers as well. As farming gained importance to the economic growth of Ivory Coast, European and African farmers alike worked diligently to enlarge their businesses. This  inherently caused a need for more workers, a need far greater than the number of workers available. During this time, amidst World War II, the French government systematically gave worker preference to the European farmers and made the African farmers find voluntary workers locally or close up shop entirely. These systemic injustices caused great strife between the African working class as they were growing further apart from their European counterparts and had little to no say in the matter as none of them were recognized, French citizens.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Murphy |first=D. |date=2008-01-01 |title=French Colonialism Unmasked: The Vichy Years in French West Africa |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fs/knm287 |journal=French Studies |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=112–113 |doi=10.1093/fs/knm287 |issn=0016-1128}}</ref> This labor source was so important to the economic life of Ivory Coast that in 1932 the AOF annexed a large part of Upper Volta to Ivory Coast and administered it as a single colony.<ref name=":8" /> Many Ivorians viewed the head tax as a violation of the terms of the protectorate treaties because it seemed that France was now demanding a ''coutume or'' payment from the local kings rather than the reverse.<ref name=":7" /> Much of the population, especially in the interior, considered the tax a humiliating symbol of submission.<ref name=":7" />

From 1904 to 1958, Ivory Coast was a constituent unit of the [[Federation of French West Africa]]. It was a colony and an overseas territory under the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]]. Until the period following [[World War II]], governmental affairs in French West Africa were administered from Paris. France's policy in West Africa was reflected mainly in its philosophy of "association", meaning that all Africans in Ivory Coast were officially French subjects without rights to representation in Africa or France. In 1905, the French officially abolished [[African slave trade|slavery]] in most of French West Africa.<ref>"[http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/colloqpapers/16peterson.pdf Slave Emancipation and the Expansion of Islam, 1905–1914] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502161407/http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/colloqpapers/16peterson.pdf |date=2013-05-02 }}". p. 11.</ref>

In 1908, [[Gabriel Angoulvant]] was appointed governor of Ivory Coast.<ref name=":7" /> Angoulvant had little prior experience in Africa but believed that the development of Ivory Coast could proceed only after the forceful conquest, or so-called pacification, of the colony.<ref name=":7" /> He sent military expeditions into the hinterland to quell resistance.<ref name=":7" /> As a result of these expeditions, local rulers were compelled to obey existing antislavery laws, supply porters and food to the French forces, and ensure the protection of French trade and personnel.<ref name=":7" /> In return, the French agreed to leave local customs intact and specifically promised not to intervene in the selection of rulers.<ref name=":7" /> However, the French often disregarded their side of the agreement, deporting or interning rulers seen as instigators of revolt.<ref name=":7" /> They also regrouped villages and established a uniform administration throughout most of the colony.<ref name=":7" /> Finally, they replaced the ''coutume'' system with an allowance based on performance.<ref name=":9">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cote d'Ivoire: a country study |publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, D.C. |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/90005878/ |date=1988 |editor-last=Handloff |editor-first=Robert Earl |page=12 |pages= |isbn= |oclc=44238009 |postscript=. {{PD-notice}}}}.</ref>

[[French colonial empires#Second French colonial empire|French colonial policy]] incorporated concepts of [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] and association.<ref name=":9" /> Assimilation presupposed the inherent superiority of [[French culture]] over all others; the assimilation policy in the colony meant the extension of the French language, institutions, laws, and customs.<ref name=":9" /> The policy of association not only affirmed the superiority of the French but also entailed different institutions and systems of laws for the colonizer and the colonized.<ref name=":9" /> Under this policy, the Africans in Ivory Coast were allowed to preserve their customs insofar as they were compatible with French interests.<ref name=":9" /> An indigenous elite trained in French administrative practice formed an intermediary group between the French and the Africans.<ref name=":9" />

Assimilation was practiced in Ivory Coast to the extent that a small number of Westernised Ivorians were granted the right to apply for French citizenship after 1930.<ref name=":9" /> However, most Ivorians were classified as French subjects with no political rights under the principle of association.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Moreover, they were drafted for work in mines, on plantations, as porters, and on public projects as part of their tax responsibility.<ref name=":8" /> They were also expected to serve in the military and were subject to the [[indigénat]], a separate system of laws for Africans.<ref name=":8" />

In World War II, the [[Vichy regime]] remained in control until 1943, when members of General [[Charles de Gaulle|Charles De Gaulle]]'s provisional government assumed control of all French West Africa. The [[Brazzaville Conference of 1944|Brazzaville conference]] in 1944, the first Constituent Assembly of the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] in 1946, and France's gratitude for African loyalty during World War II led to far-reaching governmental reforms in 1946. French citizenship was granted to all African "subjects," the right to organize politically was recognized, and various forms of forced labor were abolished. A turning point in relations with France was reached with the 1956 Overseas Reform Act or [[Loi-cadre Defferre]], which transferred several powers from Paris to elected territorial governments in [[French West Africa]] and also removed remaining voting inequalities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=France: The "Loi-Cadre" of June 23, 1956 {{!}} Internet History Sourcebooks |url=https://sourcebooks.web.fordham.edu/mod/1956-loicadre.asp |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=Fordham University}}</ref>

Until 1958, governors appointed in Paris administered the colony of Ivory Coast, using a system of direct, centralized administration that left little room for Ivorian participation in policymaking.<ref name=":9" /> The French colonial administration also adopted divide-and-rule policies, applying ideas of assimilation only to the educated elite.<ref name=":9" /> The French were interested in ensuring that the small but influential elite was sufficiently satisfied with the status quo to refrain from any anti-French sentiment.<ref name=":9" /> Although strongly opposed to the practices of association, educated Ivorians believed that they would achieve equality with their French peers through assimilation rather than through complete independence from France, a change that would eliminate the enormous economic advantages of remaining a French possession.<ref name=":9" /> After postwar reforms, the Ivorian leaders realized that assimilation implied the superiority of the French over the Ivorians and that discrimination and inequality would end only with [[independence]].<ref name=":9" />