Editing History of Islam (section)

==Umayyad Caliphate==
{{main|Umayyad Caliphate}}
[[File:Greek Muawiya inscription of Hammat Gader, 663 AD.png|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=A black and white scan of a 7th-century stone plaque inscribed in Greek with credits to a sovereign ruler for restoring a bath facility|A Greek inscription crediting Mu'awiya for restoring the Roman-era bath facilities at [[Hamat Gader]] in 663, the sole epigraphic attestation of Mu'awiya's rule in [[Syria (region)|Syria]]]]

The Umayyad dynasty (or Ommiads), whose name derives from [[Umayya ibn Abd Shams]], the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from 661 to 750 CE. Although the Umayyad family came from the city of [[Mecca]], [[Damascus]] was the capital. After the death of [[Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr]] in 666,<ref>''The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate'' by Wilferd Madelung. p. 340.</ref><ref>''Encyclopaedic ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia: A-I'', Volume 1 edited by R. Khanam. p. 543</ref> [[Muawiyah I]] consolidated his power. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus from [[Medina]], which led to profound changes in the empire. In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to power.

As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the [[Bayt al-mal]] and the Welfare State expenses to assist the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled, increased, the Umayyads asked the new converts (mawali) to continue paying the poll tax. The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury also seemed at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad.<ref>''Islam and Politics'' John L. Esposito 1998 p. 16</ref><ref>''Islamic Imperial Law: Harun-Al-Rashid's Codification Project'' by Benjamin Jokisch – 2007 p. 404</ref><ref>''The Byzantine And Early Islamic Near East'' Hugh N. Kennedy – 2006 p. 197</ref> All this increased discontent.<ref>''A Chronology of Islamic History'' by H. U. Rahman pp. 106, 129</ref><ref>''Voyages in World History'' by Josef W. Meri p. 248</ref> The descendants of Muhammad's uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] rallied discontented ''mawali'', poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general [[Abu Muslim]], inaugurating the [[Abbasid dynasty]] in 750, which moved the capital to [[Baghdad]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}; {{Harvtxt|Lewis|1993|pp=71–83}}</ref> A branch of the [[Ummayad]] family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the [[Fitna of al-Andalus]]. The Bayt al-mal, the Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids.
[[File:Umayyad750ADloc.png|thumb|upright|250px|Territories of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]]]

At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than {{convert|5000000|sqmi}} making it one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires]] the world had yet seen,<ref name=Blankinship>{{Cite book|title=The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads|first=Khalid Yahya|last=Blankinship|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-7914-1827-7|page=37}}</ref> and the fifth [[List of largest empires#Contiguous empires|largest contiguous empire]] ever.

Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of [[Constantinople]]. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in [[Anatolia]]. [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]] credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post-[[civil war]] anarchy. However, [[Shia Islam|Shia Muslims]] accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the [[Ummah]], fabricating self-aggrandizing [[heresy|heresies]]<ref>[http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap8.php answering-ansar.org. ch 8.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622044557/http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap8.php |date=22 June 2011 }}</ref> slandering [[Muhammad|the Prophet]]'s family<ref>[http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap7.php answering-ansar.org. ch 7.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622045815/http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap7.php |date=22 June 2011 }}</ref> and even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.<ref>''Kokab wa Rifi Fazal-e-Ali Karam Allah Wajhu'', Page 484, by Syed Mohammed Subh-e-Kashaf AlTirmidhi, Urdu translation by Syed Sharif Hussein Sherwani Sabzawari, Published by Aloom AlMuhammed, number B12 Shadbagh, Lahore, 1 January 1963. p. 484.</ref> One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali.
In 682, Yazid restored [[Uqba ibn Nafi]] as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles against the [[Berber people|Berbers]] and Byzantines.<ref>History of the Arab by Philip K Hitti</ref> From there Uqba marched thousands of miles westward towards [[Tangier]], where he reached the Atlantic coast, and then marched eastwards through the [[Atlas Mountains]].<ref>History of Islam by prof.Masudul Hasan</ref> With about 300 [[cavalry]]men, he proceeded towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period.<ref>The Empire of the Arabs by sir John Glubb</ref> Weakened by the civil wars, the Umayyad lost supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of [[Rhodes]] and [[Crete]]. Under the rule of [[Yazid I]], some Muslims in Kufa began to think that if [[Husayn ibn Ali]] the descendant of Muhammad was their ruler, he would have been more just. He was invited to Kufa but was later betrayed and killed. Imam Husain's son, Imam [[Ali ibn Husain]], was imprisoned along with Husain's sister and other ladies left in [[Karbala]] war. Due to opposition by public they were later released and allowed to go to their native place Medina. One Imam after another continued in the generation of Imam Husain but they were opposed by the Caliphs of the day as their rivals till Imam [[Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah]] came in power as first Caliph of [[Fatimid]] in North Africa when Caliphate and Imamate came to same person again after Imam Ali. These Imams were recognized by Shia Islam taking Imam Ali as first Caliph/Imam and the same is institutionalized by the [[Safavids]] and many similar institutions named now as [[Ismaili]], [[Twelver]], etc.

The period under [[Muawiya II]] was marked by civil wars ([[Second Fitna]]). This would ease in the reign of [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan]], a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all important records were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a [[currency]] for the Muslim world was minted. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire under [[Justinian II]] ([[Battle of Sebastopolis]]) in 692 in [[Asia Minor]]. The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of [[Slavs]]. The Islamic currency was then made the exclusive currency in the Muslim world.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} He reformed agriculture and commerce.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} Abd al-Malik consolidated Muslim rule and extended it, made Arabic the state language, and organized a regular [[postal service]].
[[File:Grande Mosquée de Kairouan, vue d'ensemble.jpg|thumb|The [[Mosque of Uqba]] (Great Mosque of Kairouan), founded by the Umayyad general Uqba Ibn Nafi in 670, is the oldest and most prestigious mosque in the Muslim West; its present form dates from the 9th century, [[Kairouan]], [[Tunisia]].]]
Under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from the Iberian Peninsula to India. [[Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]] played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era. This tactic was crucial for the expansion to the Iberian Peninsula. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic power.

[[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik]] was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed [[Yazid ibn al-Muhallab]] governor of [[Mesopotamia]]. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of [[al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf|al-Hajjaj]], one of two prominent leaders (the other was [[Qutayba ibn Muslim]]) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to [[Damascus]] on becoming Caliph, remaining in [[Ramla]]. Sulayman sent [[Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik]] to attack the Byzantine capital ([[Siege of Constantinople (717–18)|siege of Constantinople]]). The intervention of [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]] on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.

[[Yazid II]] came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire.<ref>In the Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula), North Africa and in the east populations revolted. In A.H. 102 (720–721) in Ifriqiyah, the harsh governor Yazid ibn Muslim was overthrown and Muhammad ibn Yazid, the former governor, restored to power. The caliph accepted this and confirmed Muhammad ibn Yazid as governor of Ifriqiyah.</ref> Yazid expanded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother, [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik]] ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with local restlessness to produce the [[Berber Revolt]]. He was also faced with a revolt by [[Zayd ibn Ali]]. Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The [[Battle of Akroinon]], a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.<ref>*Eggenberger, David (1985). ''An Encyclopedia of Battles: Accounts of Over 1,560 Battles from 1479 BC. to the Present''. Courier Dover Publications. {{ISBN|0-486-24913-1}} p. 3.</ref> Hisham died in 743.
[[File:The Saracen Army outside Paris, 730-32 AD.png|thumb|Umayyad army invades France after conquering the Iberian Peninsula]] [[Al-Walid I]] began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islamic empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into [[Carthage]] and across to the west of North Africa. Muslim armies under [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]] crossed the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and began to [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|conquer the Iberian Peninsula]] using North African [[Berber people|Berber]] armies. The [[Visigoths]] of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] were defeated when the Umayyad conquered [[Lisbon]]. The Iberian Peninsula was the farthest extent of Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the [[Battle of Tours]]). In the east, Islamic armies under [[Muhammad ibn al-Qasim]] made it as far as the [[Indus Valley]].
[[Al-Walid II]] saw political intrigue during his reign. [[Yazid III]] spoke out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the [[Qays and Yaman tribes|Banu Qays Arabs against Yemenis]] and [[Mawali|non-Arab Muslims]], and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human [[free will]]).<ref>von Ess, "Kadar", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' 2nd Ed.</ref> Walid was shortly thereafter deposed in a [[coup]].<ref>Theophilus. Quoted Robert Hoyland, ''Seeing Islam as Others Saw It'' (Darwin Press, 1998), 660</ref> Yazid disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the [[Quran|Book of God]] and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died. [[Ibrahim ibn al-Walid]], named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in 744, before he abdicated. [[Marwan II]] ruled from 744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince [[Abd al-Rahman I|Abd al-Rahman]] who escaped to the Iberian Peninsula and founded a dynasty there.