Editing History of China (section)

==Ancient China==
<!--'Ancient China' redirects here-->
{{see also|Outline of ancient China}}
{{further|Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors}}

Chinese historians in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the political situation in early China was much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou existed at the same time as the Shang.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zhang|first=Shanruo Ning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mz-0CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56|title=Confucianism in Contemporary Chinese Politics: An Actionable Account of Authoritarian Political Culture|date=2016|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-8240-6|language=en| page=56}}</ref> This bears similarities to how China, both contemporaneously and later, has been divided into states that were not one region, legally or culturally.<ref>{{Cite book | chapter= Representations of Regional Diversity during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty | last= Goldin | first= Paul R. | pages=31–48 |doi= 10.1163/9789004299337_003 | publisher= Brill | title= Ideology of Power and Power of Ideology in Early China| series= Sinica Leidensia, vol. 124 | editor1= Yuri Pines | editor1-link= Yuri Pines| editor2=Paul R. Goldin | editor3=Martin Kern | date=2015 | isbn= 9789004299337 | chapter-url= https://www.academia.edu/25000203 | chapter-url-access= registration}}</ref>

The earliest period once considered historical was the legendary era of the sage-emperors [[Emperor Yao|Yao]], [[Emperor Shun|Shun]], and [[Yu the Great|Yu]]. Traditionally, the [[abdication system]] was prominent in this period,<ref>{{Cite journal | last= Pines | first= Yuri| author-link=Yuri Pines | journal= T'oung Pao | volume=91 | date=2005 | title= Disputers of Abdication: Zhanguo egalitarianism and the sovereign's power | pages=243–300 | issue=4/5 | jstor= 4529011 | doi= 10.1163/156853205774910098}}</ref> with Yao yielding his throne to Shun, who abdicated to Yu, who founded the Xia dynasty.

===<span class="anchor" id="Xia"></span>Xia dynasty (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC)===
{{Main|Xia dynasty}}
[[File:Turquoise-Inlaid Plaque with Stylized Animal-Mask Decoration, 1900-1350 BC, Neolithic to Shang period, Erlitou culture, China, bronze with turquoise inlay - Sackler Museum - DSC02627.JPG|thumb|Decorative plaque from the [[Erlitou culture]]]]

The [[Xia dynasty]] ({{circa|2070|1600 BC}}) is the earliest of the three dynasties described in much later traditional historiography, which includes the ''[[Bamboo Annals]]'' and [[Sima Qian]]'s ''[[Shiji]]'' ({{circa|91&nbsp;BC}}). The Xia is generally considered mythical by Western scholars, but in China it is usually associated with the early Bronze Age site at [[Erlitou]] (1900–1500&nbsp;BC) in Henan that was excavated in 1959. Since no writing was excavated at Erlitou or any other contemporaneous site, there is not enough evidence to prove whether the Xia dynasty ever existed. Some archaeologists claim that the Erlitou site was the capital of the Xia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Xu |first=Hong  |year=2021 |publisher=生活读书新知三联书店 |isbn=978-7-108-07083-8 |script-title=zh:最早的中国：二里头文明的崛起 | author-mask=Xu Hong (许宏) |lang=zh | trans-title= The Earliest China: The Rise of Erlitou Civilization}}</ref> In any case, the site of Erlitou had a level of political organization that would not be incompatible with the legends of Xia recorded in later texts.<ref>{{Cite book|title=China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization|year=2007|publisher=City University of Hong Kong Press|page=25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z-fAxn_9f8wC&pg=PA25 |isbn=978-962-937-140-1}}</ref> More importantly, the Erlitou site has the earliest evidence for an elite who conducted rituals using cast bronze vessels, which would later be adopted by the Shang and Zhou.{{sfn|Bagley|1999|pp=158–159}}

=== <span class="anchor" id="Shang"></span>Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC)===
{{Main|Shang dynasty}}
{{further|Bronze Age#China|Chinese ritual bronzes|Predynastic Shang}}
[[File:HouMuWuDingFullView.jpg|thumb|The 12th-century&nbsp;BC [[Houmuwu ding|Houmuwu ''ding'']], the largest [[Bronze Age]] bronzeware found anywhere in the world]]

Both archaeological evidence like oracle bones and bronzes, as well as transmitted texts attest the historical existence of the Shang dynasty ({{circa|1600|1046&nbsp;BC}}). Findings from the earlier Shang period come from excavations at [[Erligang]] (modern [[Zhengzhou]]). Findings have been found at [[Yinxu]] (near modern [[Anyang]], Henan), the site of the final Shang capital during the [[Late Shang]] period ({{circa|1250–1050&nbsp;BC}}).{{sfn|Wilkinson|2018|p=756}} The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of the Chinese so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals—the [[oracle bone]]s, dating from {{circa|1250|1046&nbsp;BC}}.{{sfn|Boltz|1986|p=436}}

A series of at least twenty-nine kings reigned over the Shang dynasty.{{sfn|Keightley|1999|p=232}} Throughout their reigns, according to the ''Shiji'', the capital city was moved six times.{{sfn|Keightley|1999|p=233}} The final and most important move was to [[Yinxu|Yin]] during the reign of [[Wu Ding]] {{circa|1250&nbsp;BC}}.<ref>{{cite journal
| last= Boileau | first= Gilles 
| date= 2023
| title= Shang Dynasty's "nine generations chaos" and the Reign of Wu Ding: towards a Unilineal Line of Transmission of Royal Power
| journal= Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
| publisher= Cambridge University Press 
| volume= 86 | issue= 2 
| pages= 293–315, esp. 299, 303
| doi= 10.1017/S0041977X23000277
| s2cid= 260994337 
}}</ref> The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty.{{sfn|Keightley|1999|p=232}}

Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cheung |first=Kwong-yue |title=The Origins of Chinese Civilization |pages=235 |year=1983 |editor1-last=Keightley |editor1-first=David N. |chapter=Recent archaeological evidence relating to the origin of Chinese characters |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-04229-2 |editor2-last=Barnard |editor2-first=Noel |translator-last=Barnard |translator-first=Noel}}</ref> Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at [[Sanxingdui]] suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as [[China proper]].{{sfn|Bagley|1999|p=158}}

===Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC)===
{{main|Zhou dynasty|Western Zhou}}
{{further|Iron Age China|Predynastic Zhou}}
The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to about 256 BC) is the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, though its power declined steadily over the almost eight centuries of its existence. In the late 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty arose in the Wei River valley of modern western Shaanxi Province, where they were appointed Western Protectors by the [[Shang]]. A coalition led by the ruler of the Zhou, [[King Wu of Zhou|King Wu]], defeated the Shang at the [[Battle of Muye]]. They took over most of the central and lower Yellow River valley and enfeoffed their relatives and allies in semi-independent states across the region.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |author=Li Feng |title=Landscape and Power in Early China: the Crisis and Fall of the Western Zhou 1045–771 BC |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780511489655 |language=en |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511489655 |ref={{sfnref|Li|2006}} |author-link=Li Feng (sinologist)}}</ref> Several of these states eventually became more powerful than the Zhou kings.

The kings of Zhou invoked the concept of the [[Mandate of Heaven]] to legitimize their rule, a concept that was influential for almost every succeeding dynasty.<ref>{{Cite web 
|last= Mark | first= Joshua J.
| year=2012
|title=Ancient China |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/china/ |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref> Like Shangdi, Heaven (''tian'') ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhang |first=Jinfan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AOu5BAAAQBAJ&q=tian+China+rulers&pg=PA159 |title=The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2014 |isbn=978-3642232664 |page=159 |language=en |author-mask=Zhang Jinfan (張晉藩)}}</ref> It was believed that a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven.

The Zhou established two capitals [[Zongzhou]] (near modern [[Xi'an]]) and [[Chengzhou]] ([[Luoyang]]), with the king's court moving between them regularly. The Zhou alliance gradually expanded eastward into Shandong, southeastward into the Huai River valley, and southward into the [[Yangtze River]] valley.<ref name=":2"/>

====Spring and Autumn period (722–476 BC)====
{{main|Spring and Autumn period}}
[[File:Chinese plain 5c. BC-en.svg|thumb|Chinese polities in the late 5th century BC, before the breakup of Jin and the Qin move into Sichuan.]] 
In 771 BC, [[King You of Zhou|King You]] and his forces were defeated in the [[Battle of Mount Li]] by rebel states and [[Quanrong]] barbarians. The rebel aristocrats established a new ruler, [[King Ping of Zhou|King Ping]], in [[Luoyang]],<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Chen Minzhen |last2=Pines |first2=Yuri |author2-link=Yuri Pines |date=2018 |title=Where is King Ping? The History and Historiography of the Zhou Dynasty's Eastward Relocation |journal=Asia Major |series=3 |publisher=Academica Sinica |volume=31 |pages=1–27 |jstor=26571325 |number=1}}</ref>{{rp|4}} beginning the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou period, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. The former period is named after the famous ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]''. The sharply reduced political authority of the royal house left a power vacuum at the center of the Zhou culture sphere. The Zhou kings had delegated local political authority to hundreds of [[Ancient Chinese states|settlement states]], some of them only as large as a walled town and surrounding land. These states began to fight against one another and vie for [[hegemony]]. The more powerful states tended to conquer and incorporate the weaker ones, so the number of states declined over time.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hsu|first=Cho-yun|title=Ancient China in Transition: An Analysis of Social Mobility, 722–222 B.C. | author-link= Cho-yun Hsu 
|series= Stanford Studies in the Civilizations of Eastern Asia | url= https://archive.org/details/ancientchinaintr0000hsuc/ | url-access= registration | oclc= 1145777819 |date=1965 |publisher=Stanford University Press |language=en | lccn=65013110 }}</ref> By the 6th century BC most small states had disappeared by being annexed and just a few large and powerful principalities remained. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue). Many new cities were established in this period and society gradually became more urbanized and commercialized. Many famous individuals such as [[Laozi]], [[Confucius]] and [[Sun Tzu]] lived during this chaotic period.

Conflict in this period occurred both between and within states. Warfare between states forced the surviving states to develop better administrations to mobilize more soldiers and resources. Within states there was constant jockeying between elite families. For example, the three most powerful families in the Jin state—Zhao, Wei and Han—eventually overthrew the ruling family and [[Partition of Jin|partitioned the state between them]].

The [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] of [[Chinese philosophy|classical Chinese philosophy]] began blossoming during this period and the subsequent Warring States period. Such influential intellectual movements as [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]] and [[Mohism]] were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The first two philosophical thoughts would have an enormous influence on Chinese culture.

====Warring States period (476–221 BC)====
{{main|Warring States period}}
[[File:EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg|thumb|The Warring States, {{c.}} 260{{nbsp}}BC]]

After further political consolidations, seven prominent states remained during the 5th century{{nbsp}}BC. The years in which these states battled each other is known as the [[Warring States]] period. Though the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] king nominally remained as such until 256{{nbsp}}BC, he was largely a figurehead that held little real power.

Numerous developments were made during this period in the areas of culture and mathematics—including the ''[[Zuo Zhuan]]'' within the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' (a literary work summarizing the preceding Spring and Autumn period), and the bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the [[Tsinghua Bamboo Slips|Tsinghua]] collection, dated to 305{{nbsp}}BC—being the world's earliest known example of a two-digit, base-10 multiplication table. The Tsinghua collection indicates that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period.<ref>{{cite news
| doi=10.1038/nature.2014.14482
|last=Qiu | first= Jane
| publisher= Nature
| url= http://www.nature.com/news/ancient-times-table-hidden-in-chinese-bamboo-strips-1.14482  
| title= Ancient times table hidden in Chinese bamboo strips. The 2,300-year-old matrix is the world's oldest decimal multiplication table
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140122064930/http://www.nature.com/news/ancient-times-table-hidden-in-chinese-bamboo-strips-1.14482 |archive-date=22 January 2014
| date=7 January 2014
 }}</ref>

As neighboring territories of the seven states were annexed (including areas of modern [[Sichuan]] and [[Liaoning]]), they were now to be governed under an administrative system of [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]] and [[prefectures]]. This system had been in use elsewhere since the Spring and Autumn period, and its influence on administration would prove resilient—its terminology can still be seen in the contemporaneous ''[[Administrative divisions of China|sheng]]'' and ''[[Administrative divisions of China|xian]]'' ("provinces" and "counties") of contemporary China.

The state of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] became dominant in the waning decades of the Warring States period, conquering the [[Shu (state)|Shu]] capital of [[Jinsha site|Jinsha]] on the Chengdu Plain; and then eventually driving [[Chu (state)|Chu]] from its place in the Han River valley. Qin imitated the administrative reforms of the other states, thereby becoming a powerhouse.<ref name=":0"/> Its final expansion began during the reign of [[Ying Zheng]], ultimately unifying the other six regional powers, and enabling him to proclaim himself as China's first [[Emperor of China|emperor]]—known to history as [[Qin Shi Huang]].