Editing History of Bhutan (section)

===Consolidation and defeat of Tibetan invasions, 1616–51===
[[File:CEM-36-Regno-della-China-2355.jpg|thumb|280px|A 17th-century Italian map showing a large "Kingdom of Barantola or Boutan" bordering on Nepal and [[Tibet]], as well as, surprisingly, [[Yunnan]], [[Sichuan]], and the [[Western Xia|Kingdom of Tanguts]]]]
In the 17th century, a [[dual system of government|theocratic government]] independent of [[Tibet]]an political influence was established, and premodern Bhutan emerged. The theocratic government was founded by an expatriate Drukpa monk, [[Ngawang Namgyal]], who arrived in Bhutan in 1616 seeking freedom from the domination of the Gelugpa subsect led by the [[Dalai Lama]] (Ocean Lama) in Lhasa. After a series of victories over rival subsect leaders and Tibetan invaders, Ngawang Namgyal took the title ''Zhabdrung'' (At Whose Feet One Submits, or, in many Western sources, ''Dharma Raja''), becoming the temporal and spiritual leader of Bhutan. Considered the first great historical figure of Bhutan, he united the leaders of powerful Bhutanese families in a land called Drukyul. He promulgated a code of law and built a network of impregnable forts (''dzong''), a system that helped bring local lords under centralized control and strengthened the country against Tibetan invasions. Many forts were extant in the late 20th century.<ref name=cdti>{{harvnb|Worden|1991|loc="Consolidation and Defeat of Tibetan Invasions, 1616–51" (pp.&nbsp;256–257)}}</ref>

During the first war with Tibet, c. 1627, [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[Jesuits]] [[Estêvão Cacella]] and [[João Cabral]] were the first recorded Europeans to visit Bhutan on their way to Tibet. They met with Ngawang Namgyal, presented him with firearms, [[gunpowder]] and a [[telescope]], and offered him their services in the war against Tibet, but the Zhabdrung declined the offer.<ref name=cdti/> After a stay of nearly eight months Cacella wrote a long letter from the [[Chagri Monastery]] reporting the travel. This is a rare report of the Zhabdrung remaining.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.bhutannica.org/index.php?title=Estevao_Cacella |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522081607/http://www.bhutannica.org/index.php?title=Estevao_Cacella |url-status=usurped |archive-date=May 22, 2011 |contribution=Stephen Cacella |title=Bhutannica}}.</ref>

Tibetan armies invaded Bhutan around 1629, in 1631, and again in 1639, hoping to throttle Ngawang Namgyal's popularity before it spread too far. In 1634 Ngawang Namgyal defeated [[Karma Tenkyong]]'s army in the [[Battle of Five Lamas]]. The invasions were thwarted, and the Drukpa subsect developed a strong presence in western and central Bhutan, leaving Ngawang Namgyal supreme. In recognition of the power he accrued, goodwill missions were sent to Bhutan from [[Cooch Behar]] in the Duars (present-day northeastern West Bengal), Nepal to the west, and [[Ladakh]] in western Tibet. The ruler of Ladakh even gave a number of villages in his kingdom to Ngawang Namgyal.

Bhutan's troubles were not over, however. In 1643, a joint Mongol-Tibetan force sought to destroy Nyingmapa refugees who had fled to Bhutan, [[Sikkim]], and Nepal. The Mongols had seized control of religious and civil power in Tibet in the 1630s and established [[Gelugpa]] as the state religion. Bhutanese rivals of Ngawang Namgyal encouraged the Mongol intrusion, but the Mongol force was easily defeated in the humid lowlands of southern Bhutan. Another Tibetan invasion in 1647 also failed.<ref name=cdti/>

During [[Ngawang Namgyal]]'s rule, administration comprised a state monastic body with an elected head, the [[Je Khenpo]] (lord abbot), and a theocratic civil government headed by the [[Druk Desi]] (regent of Bhutan, also known as Deb Raja in Western sources). The Druk Desi was either a monk or a member of the [[laity]]—by the 19th century, usually the latter; he was elected for a three-year term, initially by a monastic council and later by the State Council ([[Lhengye Zhungtshog]]). The State Council was a central administrative organ that included regional rulers, the Zhabdrung's chamberlains, and the [[Druk Desi]]. In time, the Druk Desi came under the political control of the State Council's most powerful faction of regional administrators. The Zhabdrung was the head of state and the ultimate authority in religious and civil matters. The seat of government was at [[Thimphu]], the site of a 13th-century dzong, in the spring, summer, and fall. The winter capital was at [[Punakha Dzong]], a [[dzong]] established northeast of Thimphu in 1527. The kingdom was divided into three regions (east, central, and west), each with an appointed [[ponlop]], or governor, holding a seat in a major dzong. Districts were headed by [[dzongpon]], or district officers, who had their headquarters in lesser [[dzong]]. The ponlop were combination tax collectors, judges, military commanders, and procurement agents for the central government. Their major revenues came from the trade between [[Tibet]] and India and from land taxes.<ref name=cdti/>

[[Ngawang Namgyal]]'s regime was bound by a legal code called the [[Tsa Yig]], which described the spiritual and civil regime and provided laws for government administration and for social and moral conduct. The duties and virtues inherent in the Buddhist [[dharma]] (religious law) played a large role in the new legal code, which remained in force until the 1960s.<ref name=cdti/>