Editing History of Benin (section)

== Mythic era - 16th and 17th centuries ==
The origins of most [[Gbe]] polities are poorly understood, but historical sources indicate that throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, these polities vied for dominance over Atlantic commercial routes.<ref name = "Monroe42">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=42}}</ref> This resulted in significant political and economic expansion. Colin Renfrew (1986) proposed the concept of "peer polity interaction" to describe how sociopolitical complexity can emerge not solely from internal developments but also through interaction between neighboring independent polities. This interaction encompassed emulation, competition, warfare, and trade. On the Slave Coast, this dynamic contributed to the rise of two dominant kingdoms: Allada and Hueda.<ref name = "Monroe42"/>

=== The Kingdom of Allada ===
{{main|Kingdom of Allada}}
Founded in the sixteenth century, [[Kingdom of Ardra|Kingdom of Allada]] rose as the dominant coastal polity in present-day southern Benin, leveraging early access to long-distance trade. Although little is known of its pre-European trade role, by the mid-sixteenth century Portuguese merchants were trading at its capital, Grand Ardra, now identified with the archaeological site of Togudo-Awute near modern Allada. From the 1560s, African captives labeled "Aradas" were recorded in Peru, and the city appeared on Portuguese charts after 1570.<ref>{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=42}}</ref>

By the seventeenth century, Allada had grown significantly. Grand Ardra was home to approximately 30,000 inhabitants,<ref name = "Monroe43">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=43}}</ref> and the kingdom's military strength suggests a total population exceeding 200,000.<ref name = "Monroe43"/> The Dutch West India Company acquired around 800 slaves annually from Allada between 1636 and 1647, and by the 1680s, the Slave Coast exported roughly 5,000 captives per year, increasing to 10,000 by the 1710s. Textiles and cowries comprised up to 81% of goods exchanged for captives.<ref name = "Monroe44">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=44}}</ref>

Allada's governance involved officials such as the Grand Captain (or Caminga), the Captain of the Whites (overseeing European trade), and the Captain of Horses. Royal authority was reinforced through rituals, although descriptions of religious institutions remain sparse and often dismissive. The king's crocodile deity, Tokpodun, may have functioned as a state cult.<ref name = "Monroe45">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=45}}</ref> Grand Customs, involving ritual wealth distribution and limited human sacrifice, were held upon a king's death, paralleling later practices in Dahomey.

The influx of European and Asian goods strengthened royal prestige and authority. These goods were showcased and distributed during public rituals, bolstering elite status and political cohesion. The king monopolized high-quality imports and required that foreign traders first purchase goods from the crown before dealing elsewhere.<ref name = "Monroe46">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=46}}</ref> Yet by the late seventeenth century, challenges mounted. Increased slave demand empowered secondary elites and rival ports like Whydah. Inland polities such as Dahomey began supplying captives directly. By 1670, only 17% of captives were sourced by the king himself.<ref name = "Monroe47">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=47}}</ref> The remainder came from caboceers and inland traders.

Allada's failure to centralize control over trade led to political fragmentation. Succession disputes, including Hussar's attempted usurpation of King Soso (1717–24), and revolts in key towns like Offra, destabilized the kingdom.<ref name = "Monroe47"/> Consequently, European traders increasingly shifted their focus elsewhere by the century's end.<ref name = "Monroe47"/>

=== The Kingdom of Hueda (Whydah) ===
{{main|Kingdom of Whydah}}
The kingdom of Hueda was an early beneficiary of Allada’s inability to monopolize coastal trade. Oral traditions claim that, like Allada, Hueda was the product of a dynastic dispersal from Tado. A minor kingdom and a client of Allada for much of the seventeenth century, Hueda entered the documentary record in 1671 with the establishment of a French trading lodge in Savi, its royal capital.<ref name = "Monroe46"/> The English Royal African Company relocated its base to Savi in 1682, leaving the Dutch as the sole European power at Offra.<ref name = "Monroe46"/> Allada made attempts to reclaim control over trade, including reducing duties and imposing an embargo on Hueda-bound commerce, but these measures were largely unsuccessful.<ref name = "Monroe46"/>

Although Allada remained an important supplier of captives traded through Hueda, its exclusive control over trade revenues was significantly undermined. Hueda, meanwhile, grew rapidly. Its territory measured roughly 50 km east–west by 35 km north–south,<ref name = "Monroe48">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=48}}</ref> and sources estimate its population exceeded 100,000, with a military potential of 20,000 to 40,000.<ref name = "Monroe48"/> Savi, the capital, was described as extremely populous, and its hinterland was densely settled with over two dozen provincial centers known as "Vice-roy’s villages".<ref name = "Monroe48"/>

Savi functioned as both political capital and primary marketplace, drawing as many as 5,000 people on market days. Goods sold included locally produced salt, textiles, basketry, and pottery, as well as imported European merchandise.<ref name = "Monroe50">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=50}}</ref> Rural and urban areas were integrated economically, forming a continuous, cultivated landscape.

Trade shifted decisively to Hueda in the late seventeenth century. European lodges were established in Savi, 15 km inland from the port town of Whydah, making it a central node in Atlantic commerce. One early eighteenth-century account highlighted Hueda’s wealth and power, stating that it could hire enough help to destroy any adversary.<ref name = "Monroe50"/> As Hueda gained economic strength, it asserted political independence from Allada. From the 1670s to the 1710s, tensions escalated in the form of trade disputes, military clashes, and proxy wars.<ref name = "Monroe50"/>

Hueda's monarchy resembled Allada’s, with a hereditary king who wielded judicial authority and controlled taxation and labor. The royal ancestor cult played a legitimizing role but remained minor in scale. The dominant religious institution was the cult of [[Snake worship#Danh-gbi|Dangbe]], the python deity, led by an independent priesthood.<ref name = "Monroe50"/>

By the early eighteenth century, factionalism and the ambitions of autonomous officials eroded royal power. European merchants often supported competing elites, exacerbating internal divisions.<ref name = "Monroe52">{{harvsp|Monroe|2014|page=52}}</ref> King [[Haffon]] (r. 1708–33) tried to centralize control by restricting access to trade wealth, provoking opposition. Dissatisfied elites warned of violent consequences should the king continue his “tyranny”.<ref name = "Monroe52"/> These internal divisions ultimately enabled Dahomey to conquer Hueda in 1727.