Editing Health (section)

==Maintaining==
Achieving and maintaining health is an ongoing process, shaped by both the evolution of [[health care]] knowledge and practices as well as personal strategies and organized interventions for staying healthy.

===Diet===
{{Main|Healthy diet | Human nutrition}}
{{See also|List of nutrition guides}}
[[File:Overweight or obese population OECD 2010.png|upright=0.95|thumb|Percentage of overweight or obese population in 2010. Data source: OECD's iLibrary.<ref name="oecd.org">{{cite web|url=https://stats.oecd.org/|title=OECD Statistics|website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref><ref name="OECDOverwObese">{{cite web|url=http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=53508|title=Health, Non-Medical Determinants of Health, Body weight, Overweight or obese population, self-reported and measured, Total population|publisher=OECD's iLibrary|year=2013|format=Online Statistics|access-date=12 December 2013}}</ref>]]

[[File:Obese population OECD 2010.png|upright=0.95|thumb|right|Percentage of obese population in 2010. Data source: OECD's iLibrary.<ref name="oecd.org"/><ref name="OECDObese">{{cite web|url=http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=53527|title=Health, Non-Medical Determinants of Health, Body weight, Obese population, self-reported and measured, Total population|publisher=OECD's iLibrary|year=2013|format=Online Statistics|access-date=13 December 2013}}</ref>]]
An important way to maintain one's personal health is to have a healthy diet. A healthy diet includes a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods that provide [[nutrients]] to the body.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Healthy diet |url=https://www.who.int/initiatives/behealthy/healthy-diet |access-date=30 January 2024 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> Such nutrients provide the body with energy and keep it running. Nutrients help build and strengthen bones, muscles, and tendons and also regulate body processes (i.e., [[blood pressure]]). Water is essential for growth, reproduction and good health. [[Macronutrients]] are consumed in relatively large quantities and include proteins, carbohydrates, and fats and fatty acids.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alexander |first=Heather |title=What are macronutrients? |url=https://www.mdanderson.org/publications/focused-on-health/what-are-macronutrients-.h15-1593780.html |access-date=30 January 2024 |website=MD Anderson Cancer Center |language=en}}</ref> Micronutrients – vitamins and minerals – are consumed in relatively smaller quantities, but are essential to body processes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/elena/nutrient/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926205812/http://www.who.int/elena/nutrient/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 September 2011|title=Nutrients|website=WHO|access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref> The [[food guide pyramid]] is a pyramid-shaped guide of healthy foods divided into sections. Each section shows the recommended intake for each food group (i.e., protein, fat, carbohydrates and sugars). Making healthy food choices can lower one's risk of heart disease and the risk of developing some types of [[cancer]], and can help one maintain their weight within a healthy range.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.livelifewell.nsw.gov.au/healthyeating/ |title=Healthy Eating: Why should I make healthy food choices? |publisher=Livelifewell.nsw.gov.au |access-date=1 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227194359/http://www.livelifewell.nsw.gov.au/healthyeating/ |archive-date=27 February 2014 }}</ref>

The [[Mediterranean diet]] is commonly associated with health-promoting effects. This is sometimes attributed to the inclusion of bioactive compounds such as [[phenolic compound]]s, [[isoprenoid]]s and [[alkaloid]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Garrido M |author2=González-Flores D |author3=Marchena AM |author4=Propr E |author5=García-Parra J |author6=Barriga C |author7=Rodríguez A.B. |title=A lycopene-enriched virgin olive oil enhances antioxidant status in humans |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=93 |issue=8 |pages=1820–26 |pmid=23225211 |year=2013 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.5972 |bibcode=2013JSFA...93.1820G }}</ref>

===Exercise===
{{Main | Exercise}}
[[Exercise|Physical exercise]] enhances or maintains [[physical fitness]] and overall health and wellness. It strengthens one's bones and muscles and improves the [[cardiovascular system]]. According to the [[National Institutes of Health]], there are four types of exercise: [[endurance]], [[Physical strength|strength]], [[flexibility]], and [[Balance (ability)|balance]].<ref>{{cite web|title=4 Types of Exercise|url=https://go4life.nia.nih.gov/4-types-exercise|publisher=Go4Life, National Institute on Aging, US National Institutes of Health|language=en|date=15 May 2014|access-date=7 October 2017|archive-date=1 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701094658/https://go4life.nia.nih.gov/4-types-exercise|url-status=dead}}</ref> The CDC states that physical exercise can reduce the risks of heart disease, cancer, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, depression, and anxiety.<ref>{{Cite web|date=21 April 2020|title=Physical Activity Facts|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalactivity/facts.htm|access-date=30 May 2021|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us}}</ref> For the purpose of counteracting possible risks, it is often recommended to start physical exercise gradually as one goes. Participating in any exercising, whether it is housework, yardwork, walking or standing up when talking on the phone, is often thought to be better than none when it comes to health.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Health Risks of an Inactive Lifestyle|url=https://medlineplus.gov/healthrisksofaninactivelifestyle.html|access-date=30 May 2021|website=medlineplus.gov}}</ref>

===Sleep===
{{Main | Sleep | Sleep deprivation}}
Sleep is an essential component to maintaining health. In children, sleep is also vital for growth and development. Ongoing [[sleep deprivation]] has been linked to an increased risk for some chronic health problems. In addition, sleep deprivation has been shown to correlate with both increased susceptibility to illness and slower recovery times from illness.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pilkington |first=Stephanie |date=7 August 2013 |title=Causes and consequences of sleep deprivation in hospitalized patients |journal=Nursing Standard |volume=27 |issue=49 |pages=35–42 |doi=10.7748/ns2013.08.27.49.35.e7649|pmid=23924135 }}</ref> In one study, people with chronic insufficient sleep, set as six hours of sleep a night or less, were found to be four times more likely to catch a cold compared to those who reported sleeping for seven hours or more a night.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmu.edu/news/stories/archives/2015/august/sleep-and-sickness.html |title=New Research Confirms Lack of Sleep Connected to Getting Sick |publisher=cmu.edu |author=Shilo Rea |date=31 August 2015|access-date=25 November 2015}}</ref> Due to the role of sleep in regulating [[Sleep and metabolism|metabolism]], insufficient sleep may also play a role in [[weight gain]] or, conversely, in impeding [[weight loss]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=Sanjay R. |last2=Hu |first2=Frank B. |date=17 January 2008 |title=Short sleep duration and weight gain: a systematic review |journal=Obesity (Silver Spring) |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=643–53 |doi=10.1038/oby.2007.118 |pmid=18239586 |pmc=2723045}}</ref> Additionally, in 2007, the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]], which is the cancer research agency for the [[World Health Organization]], declared that "shiftwork that involves [[Circadian rhythm|circadian]] disruption is probably [[carcinogen]]ic to humans", speaking to the dangers of long-term nighttime work due to its intrusion on sleep.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2007/pr180.html |title=IARC Monographs Programme finds cancer hazards associated with shiftwork, painting and firefighting |publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer |date=5 December 2007 |access-date=25 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721001355/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2007/pr180.html |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation released updated recommendations for sleep duration requirements based on age, and concluded that "Individuals who habitually sleep outside the normal range may be exhibiting signs or symptoms of serious health problems or, if done volitionally, may be compromising their health and well-being."<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Hirshkowitz, Max |author2=Whiton, Kaitlyn | title=National Sleep Foundation's sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary | journal= Sleep Health |url= http://www.sleephealthjournal.org/article/S2352-7218(15)00015-7/fulltext |date=14 January 2015 | pmid = 29073412| doi= 10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010 |access-date=25 November 2015 |display-authors=etal | volume=1 |issue=1 | pages=40–43|s2cid=205190733 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
|-
! Age and condition
! Sleep needs
|-
| Newborns (0–3 months)
| 14 to 17 hours
|-
| Infants (4–11 months)
| 12 to 15 hours
|-
| Toddlers (1–2 years)
| 11 to 14 hours
|-
| Preschoolers (3–5 years)
| 10 to 13 hours
|-
| School-age children (6–13 years)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
| 9 to 11 hours
|-
| Teenagers (14–17 years)
| 8 to 10 hours
|-
| Adults (18–64 years)
| 7 to 9 hours
|-
| Older Adults (65 years and over)
| 7 to 8 hours
|}

===Role of science===
{{Main|Health science|Health care}}
[[File:Nieuws uit Indonesië, het werk van de Nederlandse dienst voor Volksgezondheid Weeknummer 46-21 - Open Beelden - 16742.ogv|thumb|upright=0.95|The Dutch Public Health Service provides medical care for the natives of the [[Dutch East Indies]], May 1946.]]
[[Health science]] is the branch of science focused on health. There are two main approaches to health science: the study and [[research]] of the [[Human body|body]] and health-related issues to understand how humans (and animals) function, and the application of that knowledge to improve health and to prevent and cure diseases and other physical and mental impairments. The science builds on many sub-fields, including [[biology]], [[biochemistry]], [[physics]], [[epidemiology]], [[pharmacology]], [[medical sociology]]. Applied health sciences endeavor to better understand and improve human health through applications in areas such as [[health education]], [[biomedical engineering]], [[biotechnology]] and [[public health]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

Organized interventions to improve health based on the principles and procedures developed through the health sciences are provided by practitioners trained in [[medicine]], [[nursing]], [[nutrition]], [[pharmacy]], [[social work]], [[psychology]], [[occupational therapy]], [[physical therapy]] and other [[health care provider|health care professions]]. Clinical practitioners focus mainly on the health of individuals, while public health practitioners consider the overall health of communities and populations. [[Workplace wellness]] programs are increasingly being adopted by companies for their value in improving the health and well-being of their employees, as are [[school health services]] to improve the health and well-being of children.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

===Role of medicine and medical science===
{{main|Medicine}}

Contemporary medicine is in general conducted within [[health care system]]s. Legal, [[credential]]ing and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations, such as churches. The characteristics of any given health care system have significant impact on the way medical care is provided.

From ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals and the [[Catholic Church]] today remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the world.<ref>{{cite book | last = Blainey | first = Geoffrey | name-list-style = vanc |year=2011 |title=A Short History of Christianity |publisher=Penguin Viking |oclc=793902685 |title-link=A Short History of Christianity }}{{page needed|date=June 2014}}</ref> Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the [[United States]])<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web|url=http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Insuring-Americas-Health-Principles-and-Recommendations.aspx |title=Insuring America's Health: Principles and Recommendations |publisher=Institute of Medicine at the National Academies of Science |date=14 January 2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091019103757/http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Insuring-Americas-Health-Principles-and-Recommendations.aspx |archive-date=19 October 2009 }}
|2={{cite web |url=http://cthealth.server101.com/the_case_for_universal_health_care_in_the_united_states.htm |title=The Case For Single Payer, Universal Health Care for the United States |publisher=Cthealth.server101.com |access-date=4 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423105127/http://cthealth.server101.com/the_case_for_universal_health_care_in_the_united_states.htm |archive-date=23 April 2018 |url-status=dead}}
}}</ref> and many [[Developing country|developing countries]] provide medical services through a system of [[universal health care]] that aims to guarantee care for all through a [[single-payer health care]] system, or compulsory private or co-operative [[health insurance]]. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. Delivery may be via private medical practices or by state-owned hospitals and clinics, or by charities, most commonly by a combination of all three.

Most [[tribe|tribal]] societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population as a whole.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sonowal |first=C.J. |date=April 2010 |title=Factors Affecting the Nutritional Health of Tribal Children in Maharashtra |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09735070.2010.11886359 |journal=Studies on Ethno-Medicine |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=21–36 |doi=10.1080/09735070.2010.11886359 |issn=0973-5070}}</ref> In such societies, healthcare is available to those that can afford to pay for it or have self-insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract) or who may be covered by care financed by the government or tribe directly.

[[File:Drug ampoule JPN.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=collection of glass bottles of different sizes|Modern drug [[ampoule]]s]]

Transparency of information is another factor defining a delivery system. Access to information on conditions, treatments, quality, and pricing greatly affects the choice by patients/consumers and, therefore, the incentives of medical professionals. While the US healthcare system has come under fire for lack of openness,<ref>{{cite journal | first = Martin | last = Sipkoff | name-list-style = vanc | title = Transparency called key to uniting cost control, quality improvement | journal = Managed Care | date = January 2004 | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 38–42 | pmid = 14763279 | url = http://www.managedcaremag.com/archives/0401/0401.forum.html | access-date = 16 April 2006 | archive-date = 17 February 2004 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040217160421/http://www.managedcaremag.com/archives/0401/0401.forum.html | url-status = live }}</ref> new legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between the need for transparency on the one hand and such issues as patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of information for commercial gain on the other.

====Delivery====
{{See also|Health care|clinic|hospital|hospice}}

Provision of medical care is classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary care categories.<ref>{{cite web |title=Primary, Secondary and Tertiary HealthCare – Arthapedia |url=http://www.arthapedia.in/index.php%3Ftitle%3DPrimary,_Secondary_and_Tertiary_HealthCare |website=www.arthapedia.in |access-date=19 January 2021 |archive-date=28 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128011946/http://www.arthapedia.in/index.php%3Ftitle=Primary,_Secondary_and_Tertiary_HealthCare |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Nurses at Butawin Urban Clinic, PNG (10711159465).jpg|thumb|alt=photograph of three nurses|Nurses in [[Kokopo]], [[East New Britain]], [[Papua New Guinea]]|upright]]
[[Primary care]] medical services are provided by [[physician]]s, [[physician assistant]]s, [[nurse practitioner]]s, or other health professionals who have first contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care.<ref>{{cite web |title=Types of health care providers: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia |url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001933.htm |website=medlineplus.gov |access-date=19 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=23 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123051332/https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001933.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> These occur in physician offices, [[clinic]]s, [[nursing home]]s, schools, home visits, and other places close to patients. About 90% of medical visits can be treated by the primary care provider. These include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses, [[preventive care]] and [[health education]] for all ages and both sexes.

[[Secondary care]] medical services are provided by [[medical specialist]]s in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient.<ref>{{cite web |title=Secondary Health Care |url=https://internationalmedicalcorps.org.uk/what-we-do/all-emergencies/secondary-health-care#:~:text=Secondary%20Health%20Care%20is%20the,most%20often%20provided%20in%20hospitals. |website=International Medical Corps |access-date=19 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=17 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117030041/https://internationalmedicalcorps.org.uk/what-we-do/all-emergencies/secondary-health-care#:~:text=Secondary%20Health%20Care%20is%20the,most%20often%20provided%20in%20hospitals. |url-status=live }}</ref> Referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both [[ambulatory care]] and [[inpatient]] services, [[Emergency department]]s, [[intensive care medicine]], surgery services, [[physical therapy]], [[childbirth|labor and delivery]], [[endoscopy]] units, diagnostic [[Medical laboratory|laboratory]] and [[medical imaging]] services, [[Hospice care|hospice]] centers, etc. Some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care setting.

[[Tertiary care]] medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals. These include [[trauma center]]s, [[burn (injury)|burn]] treatment centers, advanced [[neonatology]] unit services, [[organ transplant]]s, high-risk pregnancy, [[radiation therapy|radiation]] [[oncology]], etc.

Modern medical care also depends on information – still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by [[Electronic health record|electronic means]].

In low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average person. International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that "user fees" be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers remain.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Laokri S, Weil O, Drabo KM, Dembelé SM, Kafando B, Dujardin B | title = Removal of user fees no guarantee of universal health coverage: observations from Burkina Faso | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 91 | issue = 4 | pages = 277–82 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23599551 | pmc = 3629451 | doi = 10.2471/BLT.12.110015 }}</ref>

[[Separation of prescribing and dispensing]] is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which the [[physician]] who provides a [[medical prescription]] is independent from the [[pharmacist]] who provides the [[prescription drug]]. In the [[Western world]] there are centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries, it is traditional for physicians to also provide drugs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chou YJ, Yip WC, Lee CH, Huang N, Sun YP, Chang HJ | title = Impact of separating drug prescribing and dispensing on provider behaviour: Taiwan's experience | journal = Health Policy and Planning | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 316–29 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 12917273 | doi = 10.1093/heapol/czg038 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===Role of public health===
{{Main|Public health}}
{{See also|Global health}}

[[File:NewZealand-Stamp-1933-Health.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|Postage stamp, [[New Zealand]], 1933. Public health has been promoted&nbsp;– and depicted&nbsp;– in a wide variety of ways.]]
Public health has been described as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals."<ref>{{cite journal | author = Winslow CE | title = The Untilled Fields of Public Health | journal = Science | volume = 51 | issue = 1306 | pages = 23–33 | year = 1920 | pmid = 17838891 | doi = 10.1126/science.51.1306.23 | bibcode = 1920Sci....51...23W | url = https://archive.org/details/cihm_90880 }}</ref> It is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on [[population health]] analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a [[pandemic]]). Public health has many sub-fields, but typically includes the interdisciplinary categories of [[epidemiology]], [[biostatistics]] and [[health services]]. [[environmental health]], [[community health]], [[behavioral health]], and [[occupational health]] are also important areas of public health.

The focus of public health interventions is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the [[health promotion|promotion of healthy behavior]], [[healthy community design|communities]], and (in aspects relevant to human health) [[environmental protection|environments]]. Its aim is to prevent health problems from happening or re-occurring by implementing [[health education|educational programs]], developing [[health policy|policies]], administering services and conducting [[research]].<ref>Association of Schools of Public Health. [https://web.archive.org/web/20050307160406/http://www.whatispublichealth.org/about/index.html ''What is Public Health?''] Retrieved 24 June 2010</ref> In many cases, treating a disease or controlling a [[pathogen]] can be vital to preventing it in others, such as during an [[outbreak]]. [[Vaccination]] programs and distribution of [[condom]]s to prevent the spread of [[communicable disease]]s are examples of common preventive public health measures, as are educational campaigns to promote vaccination and the use of condoms (including overcoming resistance to such).

[[Public health]] also takes various actions to limit the health disparities between different areas of the [[country]] and, in some cases, the [[continent]] or [[world]]. One issue is the access of individuals and communities to health care in terms of financial, geographical or socio-cultural constraints.<ref>Hispanics and the Future of America. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK19910 ''Access to and Quality of Health Care'']</ref> Applications of the public [[health system]] include the areas of [[maternal health|maternal]] and child health, health services administration, emergency response, and prevention and control of [[infectious disease|infectious]] and [[chronic disease]]s.

The great positive impact of public health programs is widely acknowledged. Due in part to the policies and actions developed through public health, the 20th century registered a decrease in the mortality rates for [[infants]] and [[child]]ren and a continual increase in [[life expectancy]] in most parts of the world. For example, it is estimated that life expectancy has increased for Americans by thirty years since 1900,<ref>Association of Schools of Public Health. [https://web.archive.org/web/20050228214104/http://www.whatispublichealth.org/impact/index.html ''Impact of Public Health''.] Retrieved 24 June 2010.</ref> and worldwide by six years since 1990.<ref>World Health Organization. [https://www.who.int/gho/mortality_burden_disease/life_tables/situation_trends_text/en/index.html ''Life expectancy at birth''], accessed 20 April 2011.</ref>

===Self-care strategies===
{{Main|Self care}}
{{See also|Chronic care management|Social relation|Stress management}}
<!--[[File:Nanogreens-2.gif|thumb|Example of [[nanogreens]] from health and hygiene.]] -->
[[File:Borch Lady washing hands.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|A lady washing her hands {{Circa|1655}}]]
Personal health depends partially on the active, passive, and assisted cues people observe and adopt about their own health. These include personal actions for preventing or minimizing the effects of a disease, usually a chronic condition, through [[disease management (health)|integrative care]]. They also include personal [[hygiene]] practices to prevent infection and illness, such as [[bathing]] and [[washing hands]] with soap; [[oral hygiene|brushing and flossing teeth]]; storing, preparing and handling [[food safety|food safely]]; and many others. The information gleaned from personal [[observations of daily living]]&nbsp;– such as about sleep patterns, exercise behavior, nutritional intake and environmental features&nbsp;– may be used to inform personal decisions and actions (''e.g.'', "I feel tired in the morning so I am going to try sleeping on a different pillow"), as well as clinical decisions and treatment plans (''e.g.'', a patient who notices his or her shoes are tighter than usual may be having exacerbation of left-sided heart failure, and may require diuretic medication to reduce fluid overload).<ref name="e-primer3">[[Robert Wood Johnson Foundation]]. (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20080828125539/http://www.projecthealthdesign.org/media/file/E-primer_3.pdf ''Health in Everyday Living''.]</ref>

Personal health also depends partially on the social structure of a person's life. The maintenance of strong [[social relation]]ships, [[volunteering]], and other social activities have been linked to positive mental health and also increased longevity. One American study among [[old age|seniors]] over age 70, found that frequent volunteering was associated with reduced risk of dying compared with older persons who did not volunteer, regardless of physical health status.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harris AH, Thoresen CE | title = Volunteering is Associated with Delayed Mortality in Older People: Analysis of the Longitudinal Study of Aging | journal = Journal of Health Psychology | volume = 10 | issue = 6 | pages = 739–52 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16176953 | doi = 10.1177/1359105305057310 | s2cid = 23314208 | url = http://www.chce.research.va.gov/docs/pdfs/pi_publications/Harris/2005_Harris_Thoresen_JHS.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110722153152/http://www.chce.research.va.gov/docs/pdfs/pi_publications/Harris/2005_Harris_Thoresen_JHS.pdf | archive-date = 22 July 2011 }}</ref> Another study from Singapore reported that volunteering retirees had significantly better [[cognition|cognitive performance]] scores, fewer [[mood disorder|depressive symptoms]], and better mental well-being and [[life satisfaction]] than non-volunteering retirees.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schwingel A, Niti MM, Tang C, Ng TP | title = Continued work employment and volunteerism and mental well-being of older adults: Singapore longitudinal ageing studies | journal = Age and Ageing | volume = 38 | issue = 5 | pages = 531–37 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19474036 | doi = 10.1093/ageing/afp089 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Prolonged [[psychological stress]] may negatively impact health, and has been cited as a factor in [[cognitive impairment]] with aging, depressive illness, and expression of disease.<ref>{{cite journal | author = McEwen BS | title = Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators: central role of the brain | journal = Dialogues Clin Neurosci | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = 367–81 | year = 2006 | doi = 10.31887/DCNS.2006.8.4/bmcewen | pmid = 17290796 | pmc = 3181832 }} {{open access}}</ref> [[Stress management]] is the application of methods to either reduce stress or increase tolerance to stress. [[Relaxation technique]]s are physical methods used to relieve stress. Psychological methods include [[cognitive therapy]], [[meditation]], and [[Optimism|positive thinking]], which work by reducing response to stress. Improving relevant skills, such as [[problem solving]] and [[time management]] skills, reduces uncertainty and builds confidence, which also reduces the reaction to stress-causing situations where those skills are applicable.