Editing Han dynasty (section)

=== Eastern Han (25–220 AD)<!--'Eastern Han' and 'Later Han (25–220)' redirect here--> ===
The '''Eastern Han'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> ({{zh|t=東漢|s=东汉|p=Dōnghàn|first=t}}), also known as the '''Later Han'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> ({{zhi|t=後漢|s=后汉|p=Hòuhàn|first=t}}), formally began on 5 August AD&nbsp;25, when Liu Xiu became [[Emperor Guangwu of Han]].{{sfnp|Knechtges|2010|p=116}} During the widespread rebellion against [[Wang Mang]], the state of [[Goguryeo]] was free to raid Han's [[Four Commanderies of Han|Korean commanderies]]; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD&nbsp;30.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|p=450}}

The [[Trưng Sisters]] of [[Vietnam]] rebelled against Han in AD&nbsp;40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general [[Ma Yuan (Han dynasty)|Ma Yuan]] ({{died-in|AD&nbsp;49}}) in a campaign from AD&nbsp;42 to 43.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=562, 660}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|p=454}} Wang Mang renewed hostilities against the [[Xiongnu]], who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi ({{zhi|c=比}}), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu ({{zhi|c=蒲奴}}), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD&nbsp;50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=237–238}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=399–400}}

[[File:Bronze seal of a Xiongnu chief (seal, reverse image, transcription).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.8|[[Seal (East Asia)|Bronze seal]] of a Xiongnu chieftain with impression and transcription, conferred by the Eastern Han government and inscribed with the following text: {{lang|lzh|漢匈奴，歸義親，漢長}} ("The Chief of the Han Xiongnu, who have returned to righteousness and embraced the Han"){{sfnp|Psarras|2015|p=19}}]]
During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, China lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD&nbsp;63 and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor in [[Gansu]].{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=413–414}} [[Dou Gu]] ({{died-in|88&nbsp;AD}}) defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the [[Battle of Yiwulu]] in AD&nbsp;73, evicting them from [[Turpan]] and chasing them as far as [[Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County|Lake Barkol]] before establishing a garrison at Hami.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=414–415}} After the new Protector General of the Western Regions [[Chen Mu]] ({{died-in|AD&nbsp;75}}) was killed by allies of the Xiongnu in [[Karasahr]] and [[Kucha]], the garrison at Hami was withdrawn.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=414–415}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=73}}

At the [[Battle of Ikh Bayan]] in AD&nbsp;89, [[Dou Xian]] ({{died-in|AD&nbsp;92}}) defeated the [[Northern Chanyu (1st century)|Northern Xiongnu ''chanyu'']] who then retreated into the [[Altai Mountains]].{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=414–415}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=171}} After the Northern Xiongnu fled into the [[Ili River]] valley in AD&nbsp;91, the nomadic [[Xianbei]] occupied the area from the borders of the [[Buyeo Kingdom]] in Manchuria to the Ili River of the [[Wusun]] people.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=405, 443–444}} The Xianbei reached their apogee under [[Tanshihuai]] ({{died-in|AD&nbsp;181}}), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=444–446}}

[[File:Lead Ingot with Characters, Gansu Provincial Museum.jpg|thumb|Eastern Han inscriptions on a lead ingot, using the [[History of the Greek alphabet|Greek alphabet]] in the style of the [[Kushans]], excavated in Shaanxi, 1st–2nd centuries&nbsp;AD{{snd}}[[Gansu Provincial Museum]]{{sfnp|Cribb|1978|pp=76–78}}]]
[[Ban Chao]] ({{died-in|AD&nbsp;102}}) enlisted the aid of the [[Kushan Empire]], which controlled territory across South and Central Asia, to subdue [[Kashgar]] and its ally Sogdiana.{{sfnp|Torday|1997|p=393}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=5–6}} When a request by Kushan ruler [[Vima Kadphises]] ({{reign|{{circa|90|100&nbsp;AD}}}}) for a marriage alliance with the Han was rejected in AD&nbsp;90, he sent his forces to [[Wakhan]] (modern-day Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The conflict ended with the Kushans withdrawing because of lack of supplies.{{sfnp|Torday|1997|p=393}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=5–6}} In AD&nbsp;91, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions was reinstated when it was bestowed on Ban Chao.{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=415–416}}

Foreign travellers to the Eastern Han empire included [[Bhikkhu|Buddhist monks]] who [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|translated works into Chinese]], such as [[An Shigao]] from Parthia, and [[Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)|Lokaksema]] from Kushan-era [[Gandhara]].{{sfnp|Akira|1998|pp=248, 251}}{{sfnp|Zhang|2002|p=75}} In addition to tributary relations with the Kushans, the Han empire received gifts from sovereigns in the [[Parthian Empire]], as well as from kings in modern [[Burma]] and [[Wa (name of Japan)|Japan]]. He also initiated an unsuccessful mission to [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] in AD&nbsp;97 with [[Gan Ying]] as emissary.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=239–240, 497, 590}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=450–451, 460–461}}

A [[Sino-Roman relations|Roman embassy]] of Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] ({{reign|161|180&nbsp;AD}}) is recorded in the ''[[Weilüe]]'' and ''[[Book of Later Han]]'' to have reached the court of [[Emperor Huan of Han]] ({{reign|146|168&nbsp;AD}}) in AD&nbsp;166,{{sfnp|Chavannes|1907|p=185}} yet [[Rafe de Crespigny]] asserts that this was most likely a group of [[Roman commerce|Roman merchants]].{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=600}}{{sfnp|Yü|1986|pp=460–461}} In addition to [[Roman glass]]wares and [[Roman currency|coins]] found in China,{{sfnp|An|2002|pp=83–84}}{{sfnp|Ball|2016|p=153}} Roman medallions from the reign of [[Antoninus Pius]] and his adopted son Marcus Aurelius have been found at [[Óc Eo]] in Vietnam.{{sfnp|Ball|2016|p=153}}{{sfnp|Young|2001|pp=83–84}} This was near the commandery of [[Rinan]] where Chinese sources claim the Romans first landed, as well as embassies from [[Tianzhu (India)|Tianzhu]] in northern India in 159 and 161.{{sfnp|Yule|1915|p=52}} Óc Eo is also thought to be the port city "[[Cattigara]]" described by [[Ptolemy]] in his ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geography]]'' ({{cx|150&nbsp;AD}}) as lying east of the [[Golden Chersonese]] ([[Malay Peninsula]]) along the ''[[Magnus Sinus]]'' (i.e. the [[Gulf of Thailand]] and [[South China Sea]]), where a Greek sailor had visited.{{sfnp|Young|2001|p=29}}{{sfnp|Mawer|2013|p=38}}{{sfnp|Suárez|1999|p=92}}{{sfnp|O'Reilly|2007|p=97}}

[[File:Hu and Han war narratives. Eastern Han Dynasty (151–153 CE). Tsangshan Han tomb in Linyi city.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Eastern Han tombs sometimes have depiction of battles between [[Donghu people|Hu]] barbarians, with bows and arrows and wearing pointed hats (left), against Han troops{{snd}}Eastern Han-era, Tsangshan tomb, Linyi. Also visible in the [[Yinan tombs]].{{sfnp|Bi|2019}}]]
[[Emperor Zhang of Han|Emperor Zhang]]'s ({{reign|75|88&nbsp;AD}}) reign came to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=497, 500, 592}} Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by [[eunuch]] intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial [[consort clan]]s.{{sfnp|Hinsch|2002|p=25}}{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|p=136}} In 92&nbsp;AD, with the aid of the eunuch [[Zheng Zhong]] ({{died-in|107&nbsp;AD}}), [[Emperor He of Han|Emperor He]] ({{reign|88|105&nbsp;AD}}) had [[Empress Dou (Zhang)|Empress Dowager Dou]] ({{died-in|97&nbsp;AD}}) put under [[house arrest]] and her clan stripped of power. This was in revenge for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother—[[Consort Liang]]—and then concealing her identity from him.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=280–283}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=499, 588–589}} After Emperor He's death, his wife [[Empress Deng Sui]] ({{died-in|121&nbsp;AD}}) managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118&nbsp;AD.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=283–284}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=123–127}}

When Empress Dowager Deng died, [[Emperor An of Han|Emperor An]] ({{reign|106|125&nbsp;AD}}) was convinced by the accusations of the eunuchs Li Run ({{lang|zh|李閏}}) and Jiang Jing ({{lang|zh|江京}}) that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them, and forced many to commit suicide.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|p=284}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=128, 580}} After An's death, his wife, [[Empress Yan Ji|Empress Dowager Yan]] ({{died-in|126&nbsp;AD}}) placed the child [[Marquess of Beixiang]] on the throne in an attempt to retain power within her family. However, palace eunuch [[Sun Cheng]] ({{died-in|132&nbsp;AD}}) masterminded a successful overthrow of her regime to enthrone [[Emperor Shun of Han]] ({{reign|125|144&nbsp;AD}}). Yan was placed under house arrest, her relatives were either killed or exiled, and her eunuch allies were slaughtered.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=284–285}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=473–474, 582–583}} The regent [[Liang Ji]] ({{died-in|159&nbsp;AD}}), brother of [[Empress Liang Na]] ({{died-in|150&nbsp;AD}}), had the brother-in-law of [[Empress Deng Mengnü|Consort Deng Mengnü]] ({{died-in|165&nbsp;AD}}) killed after Deng Mengnü resisted Liang Ji's attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who was then forced to commit suicide.{{sfnp|Bielenstein|1986|pp=285–286}}{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=597–598}}

[[File:Dahuting mural, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg|thumb|A mural showing women dressed in traditional ''[[hanfu]]'' from the late Eastern Han-era Dahuting Tomb in [[Zhengzhou]], Henan]]
Students from the [[Taixue|imperial university]] organized a widespread [[student protest]] against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court.{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|p=141}} Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=597, 599, 601–602}}{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|pp=141–142}} Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying ({{lang|zh|李膺}}) and his associates from the Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. In 167&nbsp;AD, the Grand Commandant [[Dou Wu]] ({{died-in|168&nbsp;AD}}) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=602}} However, the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the [[Disasters of Partisan Prohibitions|Partisan Prohibitions]].{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=602}}

Following Huan's death, Dou Wu and the Grand Tutor [[Chen Fan]] ({{died-in|168&nbsp;AD}}) attempted a coup against the eunuchs [[Hou Lan]] ({{died-in|172&nbsp;AD}}), [[Cao Jie (eunuch)|Cao Jie]] ({{died-in|181&nbsp;AD}}), and Wang Fu ({{lang|zh|王甫}}). When the plot was uncovered, the eunuchs arrested [[Empress Dou Miao|Empress Dowager Dou]] ({{died-in|172&nbsp;AD}}) and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan ({{lang|zh|張奐}}) favoured the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side shouted accusations of treason against the other. When the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced to commit suicide.{{sfnp|Beck|1986|pp=319–322}}

Under [[Emperor Ling of Han|Emperor Ling]] ({{reign|168|189&nbsp;AD}}) the eunuchs had the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while also auctioning off top government offices.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=511}}{{sfnp|Beck|1986|p=323}} Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs [[Zhao Zhong]] ({{died-in|189&nbsp;AD}}) and [[Zhang Rang]] ({{died-in|189&nbsp;AD}}) while Emperor Ling spent much of his time [[Sexual roleplay|roleplaying]] with concubines and participating in military parades.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|pp=513–514}}