Editing Guangzhou (section)

=== Imperial China ===
[[File:Canton c. 1800.jpg|thumb|right|Canton in the early 1800s]]
[[File:Whampoa Anchorage.jpg|thumb|right|View of [[Pazhou]] in 1810]]

Incorporated into the [[Western Han dynasty|Han dynasty]], Panyu became a provincial capital. In AD 226, it became the seat of Guang [[zhou (country subdivision)|Prefecture]], which gave it its modern name. The ''[[Old Book of Tang]]'' described Guangzhou as an important port in southern China.<ref>刘煦.旧唐书·王方庆传〔M〕.北京：中华书局，1975</ref> Direct routes connected the Middle East and China, as shown in the records of a Chinese prisoner returning home from Iraq twelve years after his capture at [[Battle of Talas|Talas]].<ref>{{citation |script-title=zh:杜佑.通典 |volume=卷191〔M〕 |location=Beijing |publisher=中华书局 |year=1984}}</ref> Relations were often strained: while China was undergoing the [[An Lushan Rebellion]], Arab and Persian pirates<ref name=":0">{{cite book |title=Atlas of Islamic History |last1=Sluglett |first1=Peter |last2=Currie |first2=Andrew |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=9781138821309 |page=81}}</ref> sacked the city on 30 October 758<ref name=bret>{{citation |title=On the Knowledge Possessed by the Ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian Colonies and Other Western Countries, Mentioned in Chinese Books |first=E. |last=Bretschneider |year=1871 |publisher=Trübner & Co. |page=10 |hdl=2027/hvd.32044019826502 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="welsh">{{citation |first=Frank |last=Welsh |author-link=Frank Welsh (writer) |editor=Maya Rao |year=1974 |title=A Borrowed Place: The History of Hong Kong |isbn=9781568361345 |page=13| publisher=Kodansha International }}</ref><ref name=need>{{citation |first=Joseph |last=Needham |author-link=Joseph Needham |title=Science & Civilisation in China |year=1954 |volume=I |page=179 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref><ref name=sima>{{cite book |author-link=Sima Guang |last=Sima |first=Guang |author-mask=Sima Guang |title=Zizhi Tongjian ''Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government''}}</ref> and in revenge thousands of Arabs and Persians were killed by Chinese rebels in the [[Yangzhou massacre (760)]]. In the [[Guangzhou massacre]] about 200,000 Arab, Persian and other foreigners were killed by Chinese rebel [[Huang Chao]] in 878, along with the city's [[Jews]], [[Christians]],<ref name=frenchy>{{citation |editor=Gabriel Ferrand |year=1922 |title=Voyage du Marchand Arabe Sulaymân en Inde et en Chine, Rédigé en 851, suivi de Remarques par Abû Zayd Hasan |page=76 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=kaifung>{{citation |contribution-url=http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/judaism/kaifung.html |contribution=Kaifung Jews |title=Overview of World Religions |publisher=University of Cumbria |access-date=August 30, 2009 |archive-date=October 28, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028113532/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/judaism/kaifung.html |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=gibberish>{{lang|ar|أبوزيد حسن السيرافي ،"رحلة السيرافي"،المجمع الثقافي، أبو ظبي، عام 1999م}} (Abu Zayd Husayn al-Sirafi, ''Rihlat al-Sirafi'', al-Mujamma' al-thaqafi, Abu Dhabi, 1990)</ref> and [[Parsi]]s.<ref name=sirafi>{{citation |author=Abu Zayd as-Sirafi |script-title=ar:رحلة السيرافي |trans-title=The Journey of As-Sirafi |language=ar }}</ref><ref name="guy">{{citation |last=Guy |first=John |year=1986 |title=Oriental Trade Ceramics in South-East Asia, Ninth to Sixteenth Centuries: With a Catalogue of Chinese, Vietnamese and Thai Wares in Australian Collections |page=7 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780195825930}}</ref> The port was closed for fifty years after its destruction.<ref name=":0" />

Amid the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms]] that followed the collapse of the [[Tang dynasty]], the [[Later Liang (Five Dynasties)|Later Liang]] governor [[Liu Yan (emperor)|Liu Yan]] used his base at Panyu to establish a "Great Yue" or "[[Southern Han]]" empire, which lasted from 917 to 971. The region enjoyed considerable cultural and economic success in this period. From the 10th to 12th century, there are records that the large foreign communities were not exclusively men, but included "[[Persian people|Persian]] females".<ref>{{cite book |title=Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (Oriental Library), ''No. 2'' |year=1928 |publisher=Toyo Bunko |page=34 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Les Persans à l'Extrémité Orientale de la Route Maritime (IIe A.E. -XVIIe Siècle) |journal=Archipel |last=Lombard-Salmon |first=Claudine |year=2004 |volume=68 |page=40 |doi=10.3406/arch.2004.3830}}</ref> According to [[Odoric of Pordenone]], Guangzhou was as large as three Venices in terms of area, and rivaled all of Italy in the amount of crafts produced. He also noted the large amount of ginger available as well as large geese and snakes.{{sfn|Yule|2002|p=121}} Guangzhou was visited by the [[Moroccan people|Moroccan]] traveler [[Ibn Battuta]] during his journey around the world in the 14th century.{{sfnp|Dunn|1986|p=259}} He detailed the process by which the Chinese constructed their large ships in the port's shipyards.<ref>{{lang|ar|تحفة النظار في غرائب الأمصار وعجائب الأسفار,ابن بطوطة,ص 398}}</ref>

Shortly after the [[Hongwu Emperor]]'s declaration of the [[Ming dynasty]], he reversed his earlier support of [[foreign trade]] and imposed the first of a series of [[haijin|sea bans]] ({{lang-zh|t=|labels=no|s=海禁}}).{{sfnp|Von Glahn|1996|p=90}} These banned private foreign trade upon penalty of death for the merchant and exile for his family and neighbors.{{sfnp|Li|2010|p=3}} Previous maritime intendancies of Guangzhou, [[Quanzhou]], and [[Ningbo]] were closed in 1384{{sfnp|Von Glahn|1996|p= 116}} and legal trade became limited to the [[imperial Chinese tributary system|tribute delegations]] sent to or by official representatives of foreign governments.{{sfnp|Von Glahn|1996|p= 91}}

Following the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] [[Capture of Malacca (1511)|conquest]] of the [[Melaka Sultanate]], [[Rafael Perestrello]] traveled to Guangzhou as a passenger on a native [[junk (ship)|junk]] in 1516.{{sfnp|''Knight's''|1841|p=135}} His report induced [[Fernão Pires de Andrade]] to sail to the city with eight ships the next year,{{sfnp|''Knight's''|1841|p=135}} but De Andrade's exploration{{sfnp|Cortesao|1944|p=xxxiv}} was understood as spying{{sfnp|Wills|1998|p=331}} and his brother Simão and others began attempting to monopolize trade,{{sfnp|Wills|1998|pp=331–332}} enslaving Chinese women{{sfnp|Douglas|2006|p=11}} and children, engaging in piracy,{{sfnp|Dutra & al.|1995|p=426}} and fortifying the island of [[Tamão]].{{sfnp|Wills|1998|pp=337–338}}{{sfnp|Cortesao|1944|p= xxxvii}} Rumors even circulated that Portuguese were eating the children.<ref name="sjay">{{citation |page= 130 |last=Subrahmanyam |first=Sanjay |title=The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500–1700: A Political and Economic History |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |isbn=9781118274026 |date=7 March 2012 }}</ref>{{sfnp|Wills & al.|2010|p=28}} The Guangzhou administration was charged with driving them off:{{sfnp|Dutra & al.|1995|p=426}} they bested the Portuguese at the [[Battle of Tunmen]]{{sfnp|Wills|1998|p=339}} and in [[Battle of Xicaowan|Xicao Bay]]; held a [[Tomé Pires|diplomatic mission]] hostage in a failed attempt to pressure the restoration of the [[Mahmud Shah of Malacca|sultan of Malacca]],{{sfnp|Cortesao|1944|p=xl, xliii}} who had been accounted [[Imperial Chinese tributary system|a Ming vassal]];{{sfnp|Wills|1998|p=340}} and, after placing them in [[cangue]]s and keeping them for most of a year, ultimately executed 23 by [[lingchi]].{{sfnp|Cortesao|1944|p=xliv–v}} With the help of local pirates,<ref name="sjay" /> the "[[Folangji]]" then carried out smuggling at [[Portuguese Macao|Macao]], [[Lampacau]], and {{nowrap|St John's}} Island (now [[Shangchuan Island|Shangchuan]]),{{sfnp|Douglas|2006|p=11}} until [[Leonel de Sousa]] legalized their trade with bribes to Admiral Wang Bo ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|汪|柏}}}}) and the [[Luso-Chinese agreement (1554)|1554 Luso-Chinese Accord]]. The Portuguese undertook not to raise fortifications and to pay customs dues;{{sfnp|Wills|1998|p=343}} three years later, after providing the Chinese with assistance suppressing their former pirate allies,{{sfnp|Wills|1998|p=343–344}} the Portuguese were permitted to warehouse their goods at [[Colonial Macau|Macau]] instead of Guangzhou itself.<ref name="heyporter">{{citation |last=Porter |first=Jonathan |date=1996 |title=Macau, the Imaginary City: Culture and Society, 1557 to the Present |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=9780813337494}}</ref>

[[File:Nieuhof-Ambassade-vers-la-Chine-1665 0744-2.tif|thumb|right|[[Johan Nieuhof|Nieuhof]]'s imaginative 1665 map of "Kanton",<ref>{{citation |last=La Carpentier |first=Jean-Baptiste |author-link=Jean-Baptiste Le Carpentier |title=L'Ambassade de la Compagnie Orientale des Provinces Unies vers l'Empereur de la Chine ''Embassy of the United Provinces' East India Company to the Emperor of China'' |date=1655 |language=fr}}</ref> made from secondhand accounts when Europeans were still forbidden from entering the walled city]]

In October 1646, the [[Zhu Yujian|Longwu Emperor]]'s brother, [[Zhu Yuyue]] fled by sea to Guangzhou, the last stronghold of the [[Ming dynasty|Ming empire]]. On December 11, he declared himself the Shaowu Emperor, borrowing his imperial regalia from local theater troupes.{{sfnp|Wakeman|1985|p=737}} He led a successful offense against his cousin [[Zhu Youlang]] but was deposed and executed on January 20, 1647, when the Ming turncoat Li Chengdong ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|李|成|棟}}}}) sacked the city on behalf of the [[Qing dynasty|Qing]].{{sfnp|Wakeman|1985|p=738}}

The Qing became somewhat more receptive to foreign trade after gaining control of [[Kingdom of Tungning|Taiwan]] in 1683.{{sfnp|Perdue|2009}} The [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] from [[Colonial Macau|Macau]] and [[Spanish Empire|Spaniards]] from [[Spanish Philippines|Manila]] returned, as did private Muslim, [[Armenians|Armenian]], and [[Kingdom of England|English]] traders.{{sfnp|Gunn|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E10tnvapZt0C&pg=PA208 208]}} From 1699 to 1714, the [[Louis XIV's East India Company|French]] and [[East India Company|British East India Companies]] sent a ship or two each year;{{sfnp|Gunn|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E10tnvapZt0C&pg=PA208 208]}} the [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]] [[Ostend Company|Ostend General India Co.]] arrived in 1717,{{sfnp|Butel|1997|p=197}} the [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch East India Co.]] in 1729,<ref>{{Citation |publisher=R. Phillips |location=London |title=An Authentic Account of the Embassy of the Dutch East-India Company, to the Court of the Emperor of China, in the years 1794 and 1795 |volume=I and II |first=Braam |last=Houckgeest |author2=Andre Everard Van ? |date=1798 |oclc=002094734}}</ref> the [[Norway-Denmark|Danish]] [[Danish Asiatic Company|Asiatic Co.]] in 1731, and the [[Kingdom of Sweden|Swedish]] [[Swedish East India Company|East India Co.]] the next year.{{sfnp|Gunn|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E10tnvapZt0C&pg=PA208 208]}} These were joined by the occasional [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] or [[Trieste Company]] vessel. The first independent American ship arrived in 1784, and the first [[colonial Australia]]n one in 1788.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} By that time, Guangzhou was one of the world's greatest ports, organized under the [[Canton System]].{{sfnp|Kjellberg|1975|p=99}} The main exports were [[history of tea|tea]] and [[Chinese porcelain|porcelain]].{{sfnp|Gunn|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E10tnvapZt0C&pg=PA208 208]}} As a meeting place of merchants from all over the world, Guangzhou became a major contributor to the rise of the modern global economy.<ref>{{citation |last=Van Dyke |first=Paul A. |title=The Canton Trade—Life and Enterprise on the China Coast, 1700–1845 |location=Hong Kong |date=2005 |page=161}}</ref> Guangzhou is the site of the [[Thirteen Factories]], which were the only legal place to conduct foreign trade with China from 1757 to 1842.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chatwin |first=Jonathan |title=The Southern Tour: Deng Xiaoping and the Fight for China's Future |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |year=2024 |isbn=9781350435711}}</ref>{{Rp|page=xviii}}

In the 19th century, most of the city's buildings were still only one or two stories. However, there were notable exceptions such as the [[Flower Pagoda]] of the [[Temple of the Six Banyan Trees]], and the guard tower known as the [[Zhenhai Tower (Guangzhou)|Five-Story Pagoda]]. The subsequently urbanized northern hills were bare and covered with traditional graves. The brick city walls were about {{cvt|6|mi|0}} in circumference, {{cvt|25|ft|0}} high, and {{cvt|20|ft|0}} wide. Its eight main gates and two water gates all held guards during the day and were closed at night. The wall rose to incorporate a hill on its northern side and was surrounded on the other three by a moat which, along with the canals, functioned as the city's sewer, emptied daily by the river's tides. A partition wall with four gates divided the northern "old town" from the southern "new town" closer to the river; the suburb of [[Xiguan]] (Saikwan; "West Gate") stretched beyond and the boats of fishers, traders, and [[Tanka people|Tanka]] ("boat people") almost entirely concealed the riverbank for about {{cvt|4|mi|0}}. It was common for homes to have a storefront facing the street and to treat their [[Chinese courtyard house|courtyards]] as a kind of warehouse.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=37}} The city was part of a network of signal towers so effective that messages could be relayed to [[Beijing]]—about {{cvt|1200|mi|sp=us|0}} away—in less than 24 hours.{{sfnp|Kjellberg|1975|p=95}}

[[File:Canton River, 26 May 1841.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|Guangzhou ("Canton") and the surrounding islands of [[Haizhu, Guangzhou|Henan]], [[Pazhou]], [[Changzhou Island|Changzhou]], and [[Xiaoguwei]] in 1841]]
[[File:Guangzhou_dusk_panorama.jpg|thumb|right|Guangzhou city skyline at dusk in 2011]]
The Canton System was maintained until the outbreak of the [[First Opium War]] in 1839. Following a series of battles in the [[Pearl River Delta]], the British [[Battle of Canton (March 1841)|captured Canton]] on March 18, 1841.{{sfnp|''Bulletins &c.''|1841|p=357}} The [[Battle of Canton (May 1841)|Second Battle of Canton]] was fought two months later.{{sfnp|MacPherson|1842|pp=312 & 315}} Following the Qing's 1842 [[Treaty of Nanking|treaty]] with [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Great Britain]], Guangzhou lost its privileged trade status as more and more [[treaty port]]s were opened to more and more countries, usually including extraterritorial enclaves. Amid the decline of Qing prestige and the chaos of the [[Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)]], the [[Punti]] and [[Hakka]] waged [[Punti-Hakka Clan Wars|a series of clan wars]] from 1855 to 1867 in which one million people died. The foreign trade facilities were destroyed by local Chinese in the [[Second Opium War|Arrow War]] (1856–1858). The international community relocated to the outskirts and most international trade moved through [[Shanghai]].<ref>John King Fairbank, ''Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the treaty ports, 1842–1854'' (Harvard U. P.) pp 267-284</ref><ref>Johnathan Andrew Farris, ''Enclave to Urbanity: Canton, Foreigners, and Architecture from the Late Eighteenth to the Early Twentieth Centuries'' (2016)</ref>

The concession for the [[Guangzhou–Hankou railway|Guangdong–Hankou Railway]] was awarded to the [[American China Development Company|American China Development Co.]] in 1898. It completed [[Guangzhou–Sanshui Railway|its branch line]] west to [[Foshan]] and [[Sanshui]] before being engulfed in a diplomatic crisis after a Belgian consortium bought a controlling interest and the Qing subsequently canceled its concession. [[J.P. Morgan]] was awarded millions in damages<ref>{{citation |last=Lee |first=En-han |year=1977 |title=China's Quest for Railway Autonomy, 1904–1911: A Study of the Chinese Railway-Rights Recovery Movement |publisher=Singapore University Press }}</ref> and the line to [[Wuchang District|Wuchang]] was not completed until 1936<ref>{{citation |title=Canton–Hankow Railway |newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=9 June 1936}}</ref> and the completion of a unified [[Beijing–Guangzhou Railway]] waited until the completion of [[Wuhan]]'s [[Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge|Yangtze River Bridge]] in 1957.