Editing Greek fire (section)

===Theories on composition===
The first and, for a long time, most popular theory regarding the composition of Greek fire held that its chief ingredient was [[Potassium nitrate|saltpeter]], making it an early form of [[gunpowder]].{{sfn|Haldon|Byrne|1977|p=92}}{{sfn|Ellis Davidson|1973|pp=69–70}} This argument was based on the "thunder and smoke" description, as well as on the distance the flame could be projected from the {{lang|grc-Latn|siphōn}}, which suggested an explosive discharge.{{sfn|Roland|1992|p=659}} From the times of [[Isaac Vossius]],{{sfn|Forbes|1959|p=83}} several scholars adhered to this position, most notably the so-called "French school" during the 19th century, which included chemist [[Marcellin Berthelot]].{{sfn|Roland|1992|pp=658–659}}{{sfn|Ellis Davidson|1973|p=69}}

This view has subsequently been rejected, since saltpeter does not appear to have been used in warfare in Europe or the Middle East before the 13th century, and is absent from the accounts of the Muslim writers – the [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|foremost chemists]] of the early [[Middle Ages|medieval]] world{{sfn|al-Hassan|2001|pp=41–83}} – before the same period.{{sfn|Partington|1999|pp=21–22}} In addition, the behavior of the suggested mixture would have been very different from the {{lang|grc-Latn|siphōn}}-projected substance described by Byzantine sources.{{sfn|Forbes|1959|pp=83–84}}

A second view, based on the fact that Greek fire was inextinguishable by water (some sources suggest that water intensified the flames), suggested that its destructive power was the result of the explosive reaction between water and [[quicklime]]. Although quicklime was known and used by the Byzantines and the Arabs in warfare,{{sfn|Partington|1999|pp=6–10, 14}} the theory is refuted by literary and empirical evidence. A quicklime-based substance would have to come in contact with water to ignite, while Emperor Leo's {{lang|la|[[Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise|Tactica]]}} indicates that Greek fire was often poured directly onto the decks of enemy ships,<ref>Leo VI, {{lang|la|[[Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise|Tactica]]}}, XIX.67, transl. in {{harvnb|Pryor|Jeffreys|2006|p=509}}</ref> although admittedly, decks were kept wet due to lack of sealants. Likewise, Leo describes the use of grenades,<ref>Leo VI, {{lang|la|[[Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise|Tactica]]}}, XIX.63, transl. in {{harvnb|Pryor|Jeffreys|2006|p=509}}</ref> which further reinforces the view that contact with water was not necessary for the substance's ignition.{{sfn|Roland|1992|p=660}} Zenghelis (1932) pointed out that, based on experiments, the result of the water–quicklime reaction would be negligible in the open sea.{{sfn|Zenghelis|1932|p=270}}

Another similar proposition suggested that Kallinikos had discovered [[calcium phosphide]], which can be made by boiling bones in urine in a sealed vessel.<ref>[[Colin McEvedy]] (1992), ''The New Penguin Atlas of Medieval History'', New York:  Penguin.</ref> On contact with water it releases [[phosphine]], which ignites spontaneously. Extensive experiments with calcium phosphide also failed to reproduce the described intensity of Greek fire.{{sfn|Cheronis|1937|p=363}}{{sfn|Ellis Davidson|1973|p=70}}

Consequently, although the presence of either quicklime or saltpeter in the mixture cannot be entirely excluded, they were not the primary ingredient.{{sfn|Ellis Davidson|1973|p=70}}{{sfn|Roland|1992|p=659}} Most modern scholars agree that Greek fire was based on either crude or refined [[petroleum]], comparable to modern [[napalm]]. The Byzantines had easy access to crude oil from the naturally occurring wells around the [[Black Sea]] (e.g., the wells around [[Tmutorakan]] noted by Constantine Porphyrogennetos) or in various locations throughout the Middle East.{{sfn|Haldon|Byrne|1977|p=92}}{{sfn|Partington|1999|p=4}}{{sfn|Forbes|1959|pp=82–84}} An alternate name for Greek fire was "[[Medes|Median]] fire" ({{lang|grc|μηδικὸν πῦρ}}),{{sfn|Forbes|1959|p=83}} and the 6th-century historian [[Procopius]] records that crude oil, called "[[naphtha]]" (in Greek: {{lang|grc|νάφθα}} {{lang|grc-Latn|náphtha}}, from [[Old Persian]] {{lang|peo|[[wikt:𐎴𐎳𐎫|𐎴𐎳𐎫]]}} {{lang|peo-Latn|naft}}) by the Persians, was known to the Greeks as "Median oil" ({{lang|grc|μηδικὸν ἔλαιον}}).<ref>Procopius, ''De bello Gothico'', IV.11.36, cited in {{harvnb|Partington|1999|p=3}}</ref> This seems to corroborate the availability of naphtha as a basic ingredient of Greek fire.{{sfn|Ellis Davidson|1973|p=62}}

Naphtha was also used by the [[Abbasids]] in the 9th century, with special troops, the {{lang|ar-Latn|naffāṭūn}}, who wore thick protective suits and used small copper vessels containing burning oil, which they threw onto the enemy troops.{{sfn|Partington|1999|p=22}} There is also a surviving 9th-century [[Latin]] text, preserved at [[Wolfenbüttel]] in Germany, which mentions the ingredients of what appears to be Greek fire and the operation of the {{lang|grc-Latn|siphōn}}s used to project it. Although the text contains some inaccuracies, it identifies the main component as naphtha.{{sfn|Forbes|1959|p=83}}{{sfn|Pryor|Jeffreys|2006|pp=614–616}} [[Resin]]s were probably added as a thickener (the {{lang|la|[[Praecepta Militaria]]}} refer to the substance as {{lang|grc|πῦρ κολλητικόν}}, "sticky fire"), and to increase the duration and intensity of the flame.{{sfn|Haldon|2006|p=310}}{{sfn|Pryor|Jeffreys|2006|p=618}} A modern theoretical concoction included the use of [[pine tar]] and animal fat.<ref name="video">{{cite magazine | url = http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/the-link/videos/greek-fire/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121021091344/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/the-link/videos/greek-fire/ | url-status = dead | archive-date = October 21, 2012 | title = The Link: Greek Fire | magazine = National Geographic | access-date = 22 April 2013}}</ref>

A 12th-century treatise prepared by [[Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi]] for [[Saladin]] records an Arab version of Greek fire, called {{lang|ar-Latn|naft}}, which also had a petroleum base, with [[sulfur]] and various resins added. Any direct relation with the Byzantine formula is unlikely.{{sfn|Pryor|Jeffreys|2006|pp=610–611}} An [[Isabella Cortese|Italian]] recipe from the 16th century has been recorded for recreational use; it includes charcoal from a willow tree, saltpeter ({{lang|it|sale ardente}}), alcohol, sulfur, incense, tar ({{lang|it|pegola}}), wool, and [[camphor]]; the concoction was guaranteed to "burn under water" and to be "beautiful".<ref>{{cite book |last=Cortese |first=Isabella |title=I Segreti della signora |year=1565 |publisher=Giovanni Bariletto |location=Venice |page=62 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n2Ga_v5kpI4C&q=fuoco+greco+secreti&pg=PA62 |access-date=23 February 2016}}</ref>