Editing Gorgias (section)

==Rhetorical works==

===''Encomium of Helen''===
[[Image:Helen of Troy.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Helen of Troy (painting)|Helen of Troy]]'' by [[Evelyn De Morgan]] (1898, London)]]

The ''Encomium of Helen'' is considered to be a good example of [[epideictic]] oratory and was supposed to have been Gorgias' "show piece or demonstration piece," which was used to attract students (Matsen, Rollinson and Sousa, 33). In their writings, Gorgias and other sophists speculated "about the structure and function of language" as a framework for expressing the implications of action and the ways decisions about such actions were made" (Jarratt 103). And this is exactly the purpose of Gorgias' ''Encomium of Helen''. Of the three divisions of rhetoric discussed by [[Aristotle]] in his ''Rhetoric'' (forensic, deliberative, and epideictic), the ''Encomium'' can be classified as an [[epideictic]] speech, expressing praise for [[Helen of Troy]] and ridding her of the blame she faced for leaving Sparta with Paris (Wardy 26).

Helen – the proverbial "Helen of Troy" – exemplified both sexual passion and tremendous beauty for the Greeks.  She was the daughter of [[Zeus]] and Leda, the Queen of Sparta, and her beauty was seen by the Trojans as the direct cause of the decade long [[Trojan War]] between [[Greece]] and [[Troy]]. The war began after the goddesses [[Hera]], [[Athena]], and [[Aphrodite]] asked Paris (a Trojan prince) to select who was the most beautiful of the three. Each goddess tried to influence Paris' decision, but he ultimately chose Aphrodite who then promised Paris the most beautiful woman.  Paris then traveled to Greece where he was greeted by Helen and her husband [[Menelaus]].  Under the influence of Aphrodite, Helen allowed Paris to persuade her to elope with him.  Together they traveled to Troy, not only sparking the war, but also a popular and literary tradition of blaming Helen for her wrongdoing.  It is this tradition which Gorgias confronts in the ''Encomium''.

The ''Encomium'' opens with Gorgias explaining that "a man, woman, speech, deed, city or action that is worthy of praise should be honored with acclaim, but the unworthy should be branded with blame" (Gorgias 30).  In the speech Gorgias discusses the possible reasons for Helen's journey to Troy. He explains that Helen could have been persuaded in one of four ways: by the gods, by physical force, by love, or by speech (''logos''). If it were indeed the plan of the gods that caused Helen to depart for Troy, Gorgias argues that those who blame her should face blame themselves, "for a human's anticipation cannot restrain a god's inclination" (Gorgias 31).  Gorgias explains that, by nature, the weak are ruled by the strong, and, since the gods are stronger than humans in all respects, Helen should be freed from her undesirable reputation.  If, however, Helen was abducted by force, it is clear that the aggressor committed a crime.  Thus, it should be he, not Helen, who should be blamed.  And if Helen was persuaded by love, she should also be rid of ill repute because "if love is a god, with the divine power of the gods, how could a weaker person refuse and reject him?  But if love is a human sickness and a mental weakness, it must not be blamed as mistake, but claimed as misfortune" (Gorgias 32).  Finally, if speech persuaded Helen, Gorgias claims he can easily clear her of blame.  Gorgias explains: "Speech is a powerful master and achieves the most divine feats with the smallest and least evident body.  It can stop fear, relieve pain, create joy, and increase pity" (Gorgias 31). It is here that Gorgias compares the effect of speech on the mind with the effect of drugs on the body. He states that Helen has the power to "lead" many bodies in competition by using her body as a weapon (Gumpert, 74). This image of "bodies led and misled, brought together and led apart, is of paramount importance in Gorgias' speech," (Gumpert, 74).

While Gorgias primarily used metaphors and paradox, he famously used "figures of speech, or schemata" (Matsen, Rollinson and Sousa). This included balanced clauses ([[isocolon]]), the joining of contrasting ideas ([[antithesis]]), the structure of successive clauses (parison), and the repetition of word endings ([[homoeoteleuton]]) (Matsen, Rollinson and Sousa, 33). The ''Encomium'' shows Gorgias' interest in argumentation, as he makes his point by "systematically refuting a series of possible alternatives," (Matsen, Rollinson and Sousa, 33). It is an [[encomium]] of the "rhetorical craft itself, and a demonstration of its power over us," (Gumpert, 73). According to Van Hook, ''The Encomium of Helen'' abounds in "amplification and brevity, a rhythm making prose akin to poetry, bold metaphors and poetic or unusual epithets" (122).<ref>{{cite journal| last = Van Hook | first = LaRue | title = The Encomium of Helen by Gorgias | journal = The Classical Weekly | volume = 6| issue = 16| pages = 122–123 | date = February 15, 1913 | doi=10.2307/4386697| jstor = 4386697 |url=https://archive.org/details/jstor-4386697 }}</ref>

===''Defense of Palamedes''===
In the ''Defense of Palamedes'' Gorgias describes logos as a positive instrument for creating ethical arguments (McComiskey 38).  The ''Defense'', an oration that deals with issues of morality and political commitment (Consigny 38), defends [[Palamedes (mythology)|Palamedes]] who, in [[Greek mythology]], is credited with the invention of the alphabet, written laws, numbers, armor, and measures and weights (McComiskey 47).

In the speech Palamedes defends himself against the charge of treason.  In Greek mythology, [[Odysseus]] – in order to avoid going to Troy with [[Agamemnon]] and Menelaus to bring Helen back to [[Sparta]] – pretended to have gone mad and began sowing the fields with salt.  When Palamedes threw Odysseus' son, [[Telemachus]], in front of the plow, Odysseus avoided him, demonstrating that he was sane.  Odysseus, who never forgave Palamedes for making him reveal himself, later accused Palamedes of betraying the Greeks to the Trojans.  Soon after, Palamedes was condemned and killed (Jarratt 58).

In this epideictic speech, like the ''Encomium'', Gorgias is concerned with experimenting with how plausible arguments can cause conventional truths to be doubted (Jarratt 59).  Throughout the text, Gorgias presents a method for composing logical (''logos''), ethical (''ethos'') and emotional (''pathos'') arguments from possibility, which are similar to those described by Aristotle in ''Rhetoric''.  These types of arguments about motive and capability presented in the ''Defense'' are later described by Aristotle as forensic ''[[topoi]]''.  Gorgias demonstrates that in order to prove that treason had been committed, a set of possible occurrences also need to be established.  In the ''Defense'' these occurrences are as follows: communication between Palamedes and the enemy, exchange of a pledge in the form of hostages or money, and not being detected by guards or citizens.  In his defense, Palamedes claims that a small sum of money would not have warranted such a large undertaking and reasons that a large sum of money, if indeed such a transaction had been made, would require the aid of many confederates in order for it to be transported.  Palamedes reasons further that such an exchange could neither have occurred at night because the guards would be watching, nor in the day because everyone would be able to see.  Palamedes continues, explaining that if the aforementioned conditions were, in fact, arranged then action would need to follow.  Such action needed to take place either with or without confederates; however, if these confederates were free men then they were free to disclose any information they desired, but if they were slaves there was a risk of their voluntarily accusing to earn freedom, or accusing by force when tortured.  Slaves, Palamedes says, are untrustworthy.  Palamedes goes on to list a variety of possible motives, all of which he proves false.

Through the ''Defense'' Gorgias demonstrates that a motive requires an advantage such as status, wealth, honour, and security, and insists that Palamedes lacked a motive (McComiskey 47–49).

===''Epitaphios'' (or the Athenian funeral oration)===
This text is considered to be an important contribution to the genre of epitaphios.  During the 5th and 4th centuries BC, such funeral orations were delivered by well-known orators during public burial ceremonies in Athens, whereby those who died in wars were honoured.  Gorgias' text provides a clever critique of 5th century propagandist rhetoric in imperial Athens and is the basis for Plato's parody, ''[[Menexenus (dialogue)|Menexenus]]'' (Consigny 2).