Editing Frederick V of the Palatinate (section)

==King of Bohemia, 1619–20==
===Background and plans===
The [[Kingdom of Bohemia]] was an [[elective monarchy]], and despite being a kingdom, was a part of the Holy Roman Empire. Since 1526, the kings of Bohemia had all been members of the [[House of Habsburg]]; since 1555, these kings had also been emperors. In the early seventeenth century, however, Bohemia faced a political crisis. The [[Estates of the realm]] of Bohemia became worried that the Habsburgs were planning to transform Bohemia into an [[absolute monarchy]]. A large number of Bohemian nobles were Protestant and feared that a Catholic emperor would attempt to impose Catholicism on Bohemia. Thus, a substantial opposition movement developed to the rule of [[Emperor Rudolf II]]. Rudolf had waged the [[Long War (Ottoman wars)|Long War]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]] from 1593 to 1606. Dissatisfied with the outcome, Rudolf sought to launch a new war against the Ottomans. To gain Bohemian support, Rudolf agreed to guarantee Bohemia's [[religious liberty]], issuing his so-called [[Letter of Majesty]] in 1609. Still, the Bohemian nobles remained suspicious of Rudolf and in contact with the [[Protestant Union]].

The Bohemian Estates elected the Habsburg [[Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor|Matthias]] as Rudolf's heir, and Matthias became king of Bohemia in 1611 and emperor in 1612. Yet in the latter year there was discussion within the Protestant Union about fielding a Protestant candidate to supplant Matthias as king of Bohemia, and Frederick's name was discussed in this regard. Strategists in the Palatinate believed that if Frederick became king, this would lead [[John George I, Elector of Saxony]], to break his alliance with the Habsburgs and come fully to the Protestant cause. This assumption proved unfounded.
[[Image:Christian I Anhalt Bernburg.jpg|thumb|left|Frederick's chancellor [[Christian I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg]] (1568–1630)]]
Meanwhile, the sectarian conflicts in Bohemia continued. In 1617, Matthias prevailed on the Bohemian Estates to elect the Habsburg [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand, Duke of Styria]], as heir to the throne of Bohemia. Ferdinand was an intensely loyal Catholic, and many Protestant noblemen believed that Ferdinand intended to withdraw the protections of Rudolf II's Letter of Majesty. These suspicions were further aroused when Imperial officials ordered Protestants to stop erecting Protestant churches on the "''Stifts''", lands held by [[prince bishop|ecclesiastical lords]] who were not subject to the Bohemian Estates. The Protestants claimed the status of these lands fell under the term "royal land", and thus were subject to Bohemia's authority by the Letter of Majesty – a very disputed legal interpretation which the Habsburg government rejected. On 23 May 1618, an assembly of Protestant noblemen, led by Count [[Jindřich Matyáš Thurn]], stormed [[Prague Castle]], and seized two Imperial governors, [[Vilem Slavata of Chlum]] and [[Jaroslav Borzita of Martinice]]. The rebels charged them with violating the Letter of Majesty, found them guilty, and threw them and their scribe Philip Fabricius out of the windows of the Bohemian Chancellery. This event – known as the [[Second Defenestration of Prague]] – marked the beginning of the [[Bohemian Revolt]], and with it, the beginning of the [[Thirty Years' War]].

In these circumstances [[Christian I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg]], Frederick V's governor of the Upper Palatinate, moved to intervene in Bohemia. He did not initially propose nominating Frederick as king because the young elector was still seen as politically inexperienced, and was a Calvinist, while there were virtually no Calvinists in Bohemia. At any rate, Frederick was not initially eager to defy the Emperor, who had praised Frederick's loyalty. Frederick did not publicly break with the Emperor, but in a letter to his father-in-law, [[James I of England]], he placed the blame for the Bohemian vote on the [[Jesuits]] and the Spanish party at the Habsburg court. This was a questionable evasion of the role played by Frederick's own agents.

The first mention in [[Prague]] of Frederick's name as a possible candidate as king of Bohemia came in November 1618. It is not known if Frederick's agents played a role in talking up his possible candidacy. Palatine diplomat [[Christoph von Dohna]] approached [[James I of England]] with the possibility of Frederick becoming king, but James reacted negatively to this idea. The princes of the [[Protestant Union]] similarly rejected the idea, fearing it might lead to religious war and the Elector of Saxony was staunchly opposed.

Behind the scenes, Frederick authorised sending a force under Count [[Ernst von Mansfeld]] to support the Bohemian rebels. In August 1618, forces under Mansfeld entered Bohemia and led the [[Siege of Pilsen]], which saw Pilsen fall to rebel forces on 21 November 1618, leaving the entire kingdom in Protestant hands.
[[Image:Justus Sustermans 028.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1578–1637), who was elected [[King of Bohemia]] in 1617 and who would later claim that Frederick had usurped his rightful claim to the throne of Bohemia]]
[[Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor]] died on 20 March 1619. Although his successor, the future Emperor [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]], had previously been crowned King of Bohemia, the Estates of Bohemia now refused to recognise him as their king. Fearing an invasion by Imperial forces, the Estates sought an alliance with the other members of the [[Lands of the Bohemian Crown]] ([[Silesia]], [[Lusatia]], [[Moravia]]) and on 31 July 1619 at Prague, these states formed the Bohemian Confederacy, dedicated to opposing the Habsburgs; under the terms of this agreement, Protestantism became virtually the state religion of the Bohemian lands. In August 1619, the general parliament of all the Bohemian lands declared that Ferdinand had forfeited the Bohemian throne. This formally severed all ties between Bohemia and the Habsburgs and made war inevitable. [[Ferdinand of Bavaria (bishop)|Ferdinand of Bavaria]], [[Archbishop of Cologne]] predicted this decision would lead to twenty, forty, or sixty years of war.<ref>Zitiert nach Golo Mann: ''Wallenstein'', S. 146M</ref>

The preferred candidate of Bohemians as their new king was the Elector of Saxony, but he let it be known he would not accept the throne. This left Frederick as the most senior Protestant prince available, since no one else was willing to risk conflict with the emperor. In August 1619, the chances of Frederick becoming King of Bohemia became greater when [[Gabriel Bethlen]] launched an anti-Habsburg revolt in [[Royal Hungary]]. This was also precisely the period when Ferdinand was travelling to [[Frankfurt]] for his coronation.

===Frederick in Prague===
On 26 August 1619, the states of the Bohemian Confederacy elected Frederick as the new King of Bohemia, Frederick receiving news of his election on 29 August in Amberg.<ref>s. hierzu s. unter Literaturangabe: Berning ... S. 134</ref>

Two days later, Ferdinand II [[Imperial election of 1619|was elected]] Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick was the only [[Prince-elector|elector]] who voted against Ferdinand; even the Protestant prince-electors John George I of Saxony and [[John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg|John Sigismund of Brandenburg]] adhered to the tradition of supporting the Habsburg Imperial candidate. The electoral college also condemned the Bohemian Confederation's attempt to remove Ferdinand from the throne of Bohemia and declared that the 1617 vote of the Estates of Bohemia, making Ferdinand King of Bohemia, was binding.
[[Image:Kurfyrst Frederik V af Pfalz.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Frederick]]
Frederick's decision to accept the Bohemian crown has been the subject of much historical speculation. Later Catholic propaganda, in a view accepted by [[Friedrich Schiller]], portrayed the decision as based mainly on Elizabeth Stuart's desire to be a queen.<ref>Friedrich Schiller: ''Geschichte des 30jährigen Kriegs'', Teil 1</ref>  More recently, historians have concluded that Frederick's decision was based primarily on a sense of duty to his fellow Protestants, although Frederick wavered between his obligations to the emperor and his commitment to his religious brethren. There also seems to have been economic considerations; the Upper Palatinate was at that time Europe's center for iron production, while Bohemia was a focal point for the tin and glass trade. [[Christian I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg]], told Frederick that a union of the two areas could be commercially advantageous.

On 12 September 1619, the Protestant Union met at [[Rothenburg ob der Tauber]] and called on Frederick not to intervene in Bohemian affairs. Other possible allies – the [[Dutch Republic]], [[Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy]], and the [[Republic of Venice]] – sent letters saying they would not be able to offer Frederick assistance if he accepted the Bohemian offer. Only [[Gabriel Bethlen]] offered words of encouragement.

Between 24 September and 28, Frederick reached his decision "not to resist the will of the Almighty" and thus decided to accept the Bohemian crown.<ref>Zitiert nach Peter Bilhöfer in ''Der Winterkönig. Friedrich von der Pfalz. Bayern und Europa im Zeitalter des Dreißigjährigen Krieges'', S. 24 24</ref>  The Dutch Republic, the Republic of Venice, [[Denmark]], and [[Sweden]] recognised Frederick as King of Bohemia.

On 29 September 1619, Frederick left Heidelberg for Prague. He travelled through [[Ansbach]], Amberg, Neumarkt, and [[Waldsassen]], where he was met by representatives from the Bohemian Estates. Together, they then travelled through [[Cheb]], [[Sokolov (Sokolov District)|Sokolov]], [[Žatec]], [[Louny]], and [[Slaný]]. Finally on 31 October 1619, Frederick entered Prague, along with 568 people and 100 cars, and was greeted enthusiastically.

===Coronation===
[[Image:Winterkönig Friedrich von Böhmen.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Coronation of Frederick V in [[St. Vitus Cathedral]], 4 November 1619]]
Frederick donned the [[Crown of Saint Wenceslas]] in [[St. Vitus Cathedral]] on 4 November 1619. The [[coronation]] was conducted not by the [[Archbishop of Prague]] but by the [[Utraquist]] administrator of the diocese, Jiřík Dicastus, and a Protestant elder, Jan Cyril Špalek z Třebíče. The [[liturgy]] was modelled on that used at the coronation of [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]], with only a few parts altered. The [[litany]] was sung – per the Catholic tradition – rather than spoken as was normally done by the Calvinists. Frederick was [[Anointing|anointed]] with little objection. At the end of the coronation, the Estates paid [[Homage (medieval)|homage]] to Frederick.

Although a large part of the country was already devastated by war, and many refugees were encamped in the town, the coronation was celebrated with lavish parties.<ref>Für eine zeitgenössische Darstellung des Einzugs und die Krönung siehe Krönung Friedrichs von der Pfalz zum böhmischen König</ref>

===Reign===
[[File:Bohemia 1620, Coronation Medal of King Frederic Elector Palatine of the Rhine. Obverse.jpg|left|thumb|Bohemia 1620, retrospective coronation medal of King Frederic Elector Palatine of the Rhine. Obverse]]
[[File:Bohemia 1620, Coronation Medal of King Frederic Elector Palatine of the Rhine. Reverse.jpg|thumb|The reverse of this medallion: 5 hands holding the Bohemian royal crown over the Palatinate Lion lying with a scepter in his right paw, and his left paw lying on the orb]]
Frederick assumed a weak crown and a state torn with internal divisions. The state's finances had been disrupted for years, and, at any rate, Bohemian kings had only very limited ability to raise funds, being primarily dependent on the goodwill of the nobility and the tax allocations of the [[Diet (assembly)|diets]]. The Protestant nobles felt that higher taxes were necessary to pay for war against the [[Catholic League (German)|German Catholic League]], but the country already felt overburdened in the wake of the [[Long War (Ottoman wars)|Long War]]. Further limiting Frederick's ability to manoeuvre was the need to distribute royal bounty to supporters in order to ensure their loyalty to his regime.

In Prague, Frederick soon came to be alienated from a portion of the nobility and the clergy. Neither Frederick nor his wife spoke [[Czech language|Czech]], so court offices were staffed primarily with foreigners, while the administration of the localities was left to the local nobles. This made an alliance of the royal family with the corporate bodies of the realm difficult.

Further alienation was caused by Frederick V's court preacher, [[Abraham Scultetus]], who was determined to use his new post to advance the cause of [[Calvinism]] in Bohemia. The [[Utraquist]] churches had retained the use of [[relics]] and images in church, but Scultetus now launched an [[iconoclastic]] crusade against images: beginning on 21 December 1619, images were removed from [[St. Vitus Cathedral]], and on 27–28 December, the famous [[Prague Altarpiece of Lucas Cranach the Elder]] depicting the [[Virgin Mary]] was destroyed. There was even a rumour that the grave of [[St. Wenceslaus]] was to be desecrated. Scultetus' iconoclasm was deeply unpopular, and Frederick attempted to distance himself from it, claiming that his orders were not being carried out by his followers.
[[Image:Chronogramm Winterkönig C-L 032.jpg|thumb|left|200px|This 1619 Imperial pamphlet, containing a [[chronogram]], was the first to dub Frederick "The Winter King".]]
The nickname "The Winter King" appeared shortly after the beginning of Frederick's reign and our first printed reference using the term came in a 1619 Imperial pamphlet that presented the phrase in the context of a royal [[chronogram]]. Frederick's propagandists attempted to respond to the phrase by arguing that Frederick was in fact a "Winter Lion" who defended the crown of Bohemia against troublemakers and liars, and that he would also be a "Summer Lion."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newtopiamagazine.wordpress.com/2013/07/19/the-queen-of-hearts-and-the-rosicrucian-dawn/|title=The Queen of Hearts and the Rosicrucian Dawn|last=Nichols|first=Kimberly|date=2013-07-19|website=Newtopia Magazine|language=en|access-date=2019-08-17}}</ref>

Meanwhile, Ferdinand II rallied his forces against Frederick. On 21 October 1619, he signed a treaty with [[Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria|Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria]], leader of the [[Catholic League (German)|Catholic League]]. This treaty provided that Maximilian would be commander of the forces against Frederick, promised that Maximilian would retain all of the occupied Bohemian lands for himself, and that he would be granted Frederick's electoral title as well. The Emperor was also able to obtain the support of Elector John George I of Saxony; John George's court preacher, [[Matthias Hoe von Hoenegg]], encouraged the Emperor to smash Frederick and the Bohemians.<ref>Quoted by Wedgwood, p. 94</ref>

Frederick's chancellor, Christian of Anhalt, urged Frederick to call a meeting of Protestant princes at [[Nuremberg]] in December 1619. This conference was a fiasco, as few princes bothered to send representatives. John George of Saxony declined to send a representative. Those who did attend half-heartedly promised to secure Frederick's [[Rhineland]] territories during Frederick's absence in Bohemia.

In March 1620, during a meeting of the Imperial party at [[Mulhouse]], Frederick despatched a legal defense of his actions. He argued that he had not broken the [[public peace|imperial peace]] because Bohemia was located outside of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and there was not, therefore, a conflict between an imperial prince and the emperor. Frederick argued that it would therefore be illegal for Ferdinand to use imperial power against him. This meeting, which included John George of Saxony and Maximilian of Bavaria, rejected Frederick's argument, finding that Bohemia was an indivisible part of the Empire.
[[Image:Reiterbild Friedrichs V. C-J 171.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Frederick V on horseback with [[Prague]] in the background]]
On 1 April 1620, the Imperial party issued an ultimatum calling on Frederick to leave Bohemia by 1 June. If Frederick did not comply by this date, Ferdinand threatened to enforce his right as Holy Roman Emperor and rightful King of Bohemia to overthrow the [[usurper]].

A little later, John George of Saxony signed a treaty with Ferdinand in which Ferdinand guaranteed the practice of [[Lutheranism]] in Bohemia and recognized the secular areas in the Netherlands. Ferdinand also agreed to give John George [[Lusatia]], thus cementing John George's dominance of the [[Upper Saxon Circle]].

This was the context when the parliament of the Bohemian Confederacy met on 25 March 1620. Frederick called for massive tax increases and [[conscription]] to fight the impending Imperial threat. To raise money for the Bohemian forces, Frederick used his private funds, pawned his jewels and, in May 1620, drove the Palatinate into insolvency when he decided to move two tons of gold to Bohemia.

Bad news continued to arrive for Frederick. [[James VI of Scotland and I of England]] refused to support his son-in-law militarily. The Netherlands sent only a small force and promised only 50,000 [[Florin (Italian coin)|florins]] a month for Frederick. Worst of all for Frederick, on 3 July 1620, the [[Protestant Union]] signed the Treaty of Ulm (1620), thereby withdrawing their support for Frederick and declaring neutrality in the conflict between Frederick and the Catholic League.

====Battle of White Mountain, 8 November 1620====
With the signing of the Treaty of Ulm [[Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases]], began raising Imperial troops in the [[Spanish Netherlands]] and in the [[Alsace]] region.

In early August 1620, 25,000 troops, under the command of Spinola, marched into Bohemia. In the third week of August, they shifted their focus and marched into the nearly unarmed Electoral Palatinate, occupying [[Mainz]]. The Electoral Palatinate was defended by only 2,000 English volunteers and the country was easily taken. Imperial troops set up camp in [[Frankenthal]] and [[Mannheim]]. Spinola crossed the [[Rhine]] on 5 September 1620 and proceeded to capture [[Bad Kreuznach]] on 10 September and [[Oppenheim]] on 14 September. From Bohemia, Frederick was powerless to stop the occupation of his ancestral homeland.
[[Image:Schlacht am Weißen Berg C-K 063.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Depiction of the [[Battle of White Mountain]] by [[Peter Snayers]] (1592–1667), 1620]]
After capturing [[Linz]], [[Upper Austria]], [[Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria|Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria]] crossed the Bohemian border on 26 September 1620. At [[Rokycany]], Maximilian's forces first met with the 15,000 ragtag, poorly paid and poorly equipped troops that Frederick had managed to raise. Frederick visited his army on 28 September 1620, but, lacking a military background, left the conduct of the war to his generals. Frederick focused his attention on organizing supplies and preparing fortifications.

After a series of skirmishes, on 5 November 1620, Frederick drew his forces back towards Prague and Imperial troops followed them. On 7 November, Bohemian forces determined to make a stand at [[Battle of White Mountain|White Mountain]], just outside Prague. The day before, King Frederick had ridden down the lines and exhorted the soldiers. He then rushed to Prague to implore the Bohemian Estates to raise money for his troops and to receive the envoys of the English king. However, it was too late. When, on 8 November 1620, Frederick wanted to ride back to the troops, he was met at the gates of Prague by fleeing soldiers of his army and his chancellor, Anhalt, who informed him of the disaster: the Bohemian army had received a crushing defeat that morning in the [[Battle of White Mountain]].

===Escape===
Anhalt could recommend only one option to Frederick: immediate flight. As such, on 9 November, Frederick fled to the [[Silesia]]n capital of [[Wrocław|Breslau]], along with his wife and child, some advisers, and not much more baggage than the [[Bohemian Crown Jewels]].

Maximilian took Prague shortly after Frederick's departure. From Silesia, Frederick wanted to plan revenge for the Battle of White Mountain, but the Silesian Estates refused to support this project, and he was forced to leave Silesia in early 1621.
[[Image:Eigentliche Abbildung des Winterkönigs 8.5-29.jpg|thumb|right|200px|1620 pamphlet mocking Frederick's flight from [[Prague]]]]
Contemporary pamphleteers – both Catholic and Protestant – were merciless in their portrayal of Frederick's flight from Prague. After Frederick's [[Order of the Garter|Garter]] was found in Prague, pamphleteers routinely portrayed him with his stockings falling down.

On 21 January 1621, Ferdinand issued a decree against Frederick and Anhalt, accusing them of breach of peace, supporting rebels, and treason. Ferdinand decreed that Frederick's lands and titles within the Holy Roman Empire were now forfeited. On 6 February 1621, representatives of the Protestant Union met with Ferdinand at [[Heilbronn]] to protest, but they soon agreed to support the settlement in the Palatinate, and the Palatinate remained occupied by Spanish troops. At this point, the Protestant Union had essentially ceased to exist.

The [[Twelve Years' Truce]] ended on 9 April 1621. On 14 April, Frederick joined his wife at The Hague. The Dutch Republic and Frederick signed a contract in which he accepted the support of the Netherlands for the reconquest of his dominions.

In Bohemia, the crushing of the Bohemian Revolt had terrible consequences. Twenty-seven Bohemian nobles were killed in the [[Old Town Square execution]]s on 21 June 1621. Afterwards, the heads of twelve nobles, along with the hand of [[Joachim Andreas von Schlick]], were nailed to the Old Town Tower of [[Charles Bridge]], where they remained for ten years. The elective monarchy was now abolished; the role of the Estates greatly curtailed; and the Letter of Majesty was torn by Ferdinand himself. Only [[Lutheranism]] remained tolerated in Bohemia, and in the coming years, the rest of the population would be actively re-Catholicized. Bohemia would remain part of the [[Habsburg monarchy]] until 1918.