Editing Euthydemus I (section)

==Coinage==
[[File:Silver tetradrachm of Euthydemus I as a youth.jpg|thumb|Coin of Euthydemus, 'youthful' portrait (type 1).|248x248px]]
[[File:Silver tetradrachm of Euthydemus I as a young-man.jpg|thumb|Coin of Euthydemus, 'middle-aged' portrait (type 3).|248x248px]]
[[File:Euthydemos I Ai Khanoum.jpg|thumb|248x248px|Coin of Euthydemus, 'old age' portrait (type 4).]]
Euthydemus minted coins in gold, silver and bronze at two mints, known as 'Mint A' and 'Mint B'. He produced significantly more coins than any of his successors and was the last Greco-Bactrian coinage to include gold denominations until the time of [[Eucratides I]] (ca. 170-145 BC). Euthydemus' gold and silver issues are all minted on the [[Attic weight standard]] with a [[tetradrachm]] of ca. 16.13 g and all have the same basic design. On the [[obverse and reverse|obverse]], his face is depicted in profile, clean-shaven, with unruly hair, and a [[diadem]] - this iconography is typical of [[Hellenistic]] kings, ultimately deriving from depictions of [[Alexander the Great]]. The reverse shows [[Heracles]], naked, seated on a rock, resting his club on a neighbouring rock or on his knee, with a legend reading ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΕΥΘΥΔΗΜΟΥ ('of King Euthydemos').{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=32-34}} Heracles was apparently a popular deity in Bactria, associated with Alexander the Great, but this reverse type is very similar to coins minted by the [[Seleucid]]s in western Asia Minor, near Euthydemus' home city of Magnesia.{{sfn|Bopearachchi|2011|p=47}}{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=41-42}} Heracles continues to appear on the coinage of Euthydemus' immediate successors, Demetrius and [[Euthydemus II]].

There are four distinct versions of the obverse portrait, presumably reflecting different models given to the die engravers. The first of these is an 'idealising' portrait, depicting him as a young or middle-aged man, with very large eyes, an arching eyebrow, pointed nose and protruding chin, the diadem is very broad. The overall appearance is very similar to images of [[Diodotus I]] on his coinage.{{sfn|Kritt|2001|p=75}}{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=32-34, 71-72}} The second shows him with a tall, large face with heavier jowls; his eye is smaller and the diadem is much narrower.{{sfn|Kritt|2001|p=75}}{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=32-34, 71-72}} The third portrait is similar, but with the hair above his forehead stylised as a series of semicircles. Finally, in the fourth portrait style, Euthydemus is portrayed as a visibly aged man with very large jowls; his hair also interacts with the diadem in a more natural way.{{sfn|Kritt|2001|p=75}}{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=32-34, 71-72}} Portrait type 1 is the earliest and portrait type 4 is the latest and these coins have often been interpreted as showing Euthydemus aging over the course of a long reign. However, Simon Glenn argues that the types instead represent a shift from 'idealising' portraiture to 'naturalising', pointing out that distinctions of age in the first three types are highly subjective.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=32-34, 71-72}} This shift to [[verism]] represents a substantial divergence from the usual iconography of Hellenistic kings, whose coinage usually showed them in a youthful, idealised guise, regardless of their age.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=32-34}} Portrait type 4 has been compared with a Roman-period bust in the [[Torlonia Collection]], which was accordingly identified by [[Jan Six (art historian)]] in 1894 as a bust of Euthydemus, known as the "Torlonia Euthydemus." This identification has been contested by [[R. R. R. Smith]], who identifies the bust as a general of the [[Roman Republic]].{{sfn|Smith|1988|loc=Appendix 4}} 
===Relative chronology===
Like the earlier Diodotid coinage and that of Euthydemus' successors, monograms and die links allow the precious metal coinage to be divided into two mints, which produced coins simultaneously. "Mint A" uses two types of monogram: one in the form of vertical line bisecting an equilateral triangle, with two shorter vertical lines hanging down from the corners of the triangle, and another with an Α contained within a Π.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=72-75}} Mint B initially used three monograms, of which the most long-lasting was a combination of Ρ and Η; later these were replaced by a monogram combining a Ρ and a Κ.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=76-80}} A putative "Mint C" has now been shown to be identical with "Mint B".{{sfn|Kritt|2015|p=56}}{{sfn|Glenn|2020|p=78}} Frank Holt and Brian Kritt identify "Mint B" with [[Bactra]], the kingdom's capital. Holt identifies "Mint A" with Ai Khanoum, while Kritt prefers some other location near Ai Khanoum.{{sfn|Holt|1999|p=132}}{{sfn|Kritt|2001|pp=66, 135}} Simon Glenn emphasises the that "we do not know the location of either mint" and that it is particularly uncertain whether there was a mint at Ai Khanoum at all.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=80-81}}[[Image:Sogdian barbaric copy of a coin of Euthydemus.jpg|thumb|Barbaric copy of a coin of Euthydemus from the region of [[Sogdiana]].|248x248px]]The earliest coins use portrait type 1 and have a 6 o'clock die axis (i.e. the top of the obverse is aligned with the bottom of the reverse). At Mint A, these coins, Group I (A1-A10) consist of silver [[tetradrachm]]s, [[Ancient drachma|drachm]]s, and [[Ancient drachma|hemidrachm]]s; they use either of the two monograms, plus the letters ΤΙ, ΑΝ, Α, Ν, or no monogram at all.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=73-74}} These additional letters may have referred to the specific batch of bullion used in minting the coins.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|p=74}} Partway through this issue, Mint A switches to a 12 o'clock die axis (i.e. the top of the obverse is aligned with the top of the reverse). At Mint A, Group I continues after this change.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=73-74}} At Mint B ("Group I"), the coins consist of gold [[stater]]s (ca. 8.27 g), and small numbers of silver tetradrachms and drachms, and all three monograms are used.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=76-78}} Some of the gold staters are die-linked to earlier Diodotid coins minted in the name of "Antiochus," but it is possible that the linked coins are modern forgeries.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|p=76}}<ref>These may be coins of Diodotus I in the name of the Seleucid king [[Antiochus II Theos]] or coins of a putative successor of Diodotus II called [[Antiochus Nicator]] {{harvnb|Glenn|2020|p=76}}.</ref> At Mint B, these coins are followed by Group II (CR1-CR3), which consists of gold staters and silver tetradrachms with portrait type 1 (but with some features similar to portrait model 3). Most of these coins use the Η with triangle monogram.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|p=78}}[[File:Agathokles commemorative coin for Euthydemus.jpg|thumb|'Pedigree' coin of [[Agathocles of Bactria|Agathocles]], depicting 'Euthydemus Theos' ('the God')|248x248px]]The next period starts with the introduction of the second portrait type. At Mint A, Group II (A11-A14) only tetradrachms were minted in this period, all with the bisected triangle monogram, sometimes accompanied by a Ν or an Α.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=74-75}} At Mint B this issue consisted of Group III (CR4), composed of gold staters and silver tetradrachms, with a monogram composed of Ρ, Η, and Α. This is followed by the first issue at Mint B to use a 12 o'clock die axis, Group IV (B13), consisting only of tetradrachms, all with the ΡΚ monogram, and produced in much large numbers than had previously been the case at Mint B.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|p=79}} The third portrait type, introduced only at Mint B, characterises Group V (B14-B15), which consists of tetradrachms and drachms. 

At Mint A, the introduction of portrait type 4 is marked by the start of Group III (A16-A17) and a gold [[Ancient drachma|octodrachm]] (A15) with a reverse modelled on Mint B's Group V, known from a single example weighing 32.73 g. This issue is generally associated with the end of Antiochus III's siege of Bactra in 206 BC.{{sfn|Holt|1999|p=131}}{{sfn|Kritt|2001}}{{sfn|Glenn|2020|p=75}} Group III is much smaller than previous issues at Mint A and is the last issue produced by the mint in Euthydemus' reign.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=73 & 75}} At Mint B, the introduction of portrait 4 coincides with the large issue of Groups VI and VII (B17).{{sfn|Glenn|2020|p=80}}

===Bronze coinage===
In addition to the precious metal coinage, Euthydemus also produced bronze coins. Almost all have a bearded male head, identified as Heracles, on the obverse and a rearing horse on the reverse with the legend ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΕΥΘΥΔΗΜΟΥ ('of King Euthydemos'). The earlier coins have thick [[planchet|flan]]s with beveled edges (like the bronze of the Diodotids) and no monograms. These coins were issued in four denominations, referred to by modern scholars as a double unit (5.26-11.82 g), a single unit (2.95-5.07 g), a half unit (1.47-2.28 g), and a quarter unit (0.76-0.79 g). Some of the quarter units have a horse's head or a trident on the reverse instead of the usual reverse type.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=81–82}} Apparently later issues have thinner, flat flans. These bronzes were minted in the double, single, and half denominations. Most of them have no monograms, but some of them bear the ΡΚ symbol associated with Groups IV-VII at Mint B, and a few have a trident, anchor with ΔΙ, or an Ε.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=83–84}} The anchor was one of the main symbols of the Seleucid dynasty and ΔΙ is a monogram used by the Seleucids, so Holt interpreted it as commemorating Euthydemus' treaty with Antiochus III in 206 BC.{{sfn|Holt|1999|p=132}} Simon Glenn is sceptical of this argument, seeing the anchor and other symbols as control marks, but he entertains the possibility that the anchor indicates "a shared production process" between the anchor bronzes and the coinage produced by Antiochus III in Bactria.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=83–84}}

===Posthumous coinage===
Euthydemus is also featured on the 'pedigree' coinage produced by the later kings [[Agathocles of Bactria|Agathocles]] and [[Antimachus I]]. On this coinage he bears the royal epithet, ''Theos'' ('God'); it is unclear whether he used this title in life or if it was assigned to him by Agathocles.{{sfn|Glenn|2020|pp=137 & 156-158}} His coins were imitated by the nomadic tribes of Central Asia for decades after his death; these imitations are called "barbaric" because of their crude style. Lyonnet proposes that these coins were produced by refugees fleeing the destruction of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom by the [[Yuezhi]] in the mid-second century BC.{{sfn|Lyonnet|2021|pp=324-326}}